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E-PORTFOLIO IN PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (PY48) MRS. ABIGAIL INTERNO (COURSE PROFESSOR) LAIRA ANDREI S. OSIAS (STUDENT)

FINALS ASSIGNMENT #2

PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

NAME: OSIAS, LAIRA ANDREI S. 

SUBJ CODE: PY48

UNIT 4 TOPIC: 

Blood, Heart, and Circulation

Cardiac output, Blood Flow & Blood Pressure

The Immune System 

GUIDE QUESTIONS: 

Discuss the following

Cardiac Output

Regulation of Cardiac Rate

The two branches of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system control heart rate. The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) are two types of nervous systems (PNS). To increase heart rate, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) produces hormones (catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine).

Regulation of Stroke Volume

Preload controls stroke volume inherently (the degree to which the ventricles are stretched prior to contracting). An increase in the volume or speed of venous return raises preload and, as a result of the Frank–Starling law of the heart, raises stroke volume.

Venous Return

Venous return is the flow of blood from the periphery back to the right atrium, and it is equal to cardiac output except for brief durations. Because doctors and researchers have long noted that factors affecting predominantly the venous side of the circulation can have a significant impact on cardiac output, processes governing blood flow to the heart have been well explored. However, thorough comprehension of the venous side has proven difficult due to the complexity of several of its properties.

Blood Volume

Exchange of Fluid Between Capillaries and Tissues

Capillary exchange refers to the exchange of material from the blood into the tissues in the capillary. There are three mechanisms that facilitate capillary exchange: diffusion, transcytosis and bulk flow.

Regulation of Blood Volume by the Kidneys

The kidney plays a pivotal role in the regulation of blood volume by controlling the plasma volume and red blood cell (RBC) mass. Further, it is proposed that the kidney coordinates the relative volumes of these 2 blood components and in so doing regulates the hematocrit. This novel function as proposed is a functional concept whereby the kidney does not simply produce erythropoietin, but that the kidney regulates the hematocrit is termed the critmeter function. The kidney is unique in that it can indirectly report on blood volume as a tissue oxygen signal. It is proposed that the kidneys detect small changes in tissue oxygen tension for erythropoietin production at the critmeter, a functional unit of marginal oxygen tension within the kidneys. As the production of erythropoietin is modulated by angiotensin II, the renin-angiotensin system entrains the production of erythropoietin as part of the effector signals of the feedback loop of blood volume regulation.

Vascular Resistance to Blood Flow

Physical Laws Describing Blood Flow

The passage of blood through a channel, tissue, or organ is referred to as blood flow, and it is commonly described in terms of volume of blood per unit of time. It is started by the contraction of the heart's ventricles. Ventricular contraction forces blood into the major arteries, causing blood to move from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas as it passes through smaller arteries and arterioles, capillaries, and the venules and veins of the venous system.This section discusses a number of critical variables that contribute to blood flow throughout the body. It also discusses the factors that impede or slow blood flow, a phenomenon known as resistance.

Extrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow

Neuronal, humoral, reflex, and chemical regulatory mechanisms are examples of extrinsic cardiovascular system regulation. These extrinsic controls maintain cardiac output, blood flow distribution, and arterial blood pressure by regulating heart rate, myocardial contractility, and vascular smooth muscle.

Paracrine Regulation of Blood Flow

Blood flow is regulated by paracrine mediators secreted by blood components and endothelial cells. Platelets emit thromboxane A2, thrombin, and serotonin, which elicit contraction of the underlying vascular smooth muscle in the absence of intact endothelium.

Intrinsic Regulation of Blood Flow

Intrinsic regulation, also known as local regulation, ensures that blood flow and nutrient supply correspond to the needs of target tissues. Intrinsic mechanisms affect vascular resistance in response to local changes in metabolic products and/or transmural pressure.

Blood Flow to the Heart and Skeletal Muscles

Aerobic Requirements of the Heart

Cardiovascular conditioning is provided by aerobic or "with oxygen" workouts. The American Heart Association suggests 30 minutes of cardiovascular exercise five to seven days a week.

Regulation of Coronary Blood Flow

Atherial pressure, diastolic time, and small vascular resistance all influence coronary blood flow. The system is programmed to achieve low flow, high oxygen extraction, and low cardiac Po2 levels. This option is sensitive to changes in oxygen requirements. Blood flow is predominantly regulated by local intrinsic control, most likely through the synthesis of vasodilating metabolites in response to minor degrees of ischaemia. In most cases, local regulation appears to take precedence over remote regulation. The distribution of blood flow to the myocardium is depth dependent as well as regionally variable.

Regulation of Blood Flow Through Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscle blood flow in humans is controlled by an interaction of many locally produced vasodilators, including NO and prostaglandins. ATP is a powerful vasodilator in plasma that increases the synthesis of NO and prostaglandins and, more critically, can compensate for local sympathetic vasoconstriction.

Circulatory Changes During Exercise

Increases in cardiac stroke volume and heart rate during exercise raise cardiac output, which, along with a transitory increase in systemic vascular resistance, raises mean arterial blood pressure (60). Long-term activity, on the other hand, can induce a net reduction in blood pressure during rest.

Blood Flow to the Brain and Skin

Cerebral Circulation

Cerebral circulation refers to the flow of blood in your brain. It is necessary for proper brain function. Blood circulation provides your brain with the oxygen and nourishment it requires to function properly.

Your brain receives oxygen and glucose from your blood. Although your brain is only a small portion of your overall body weight, it consumes a lot of energy to function. The Davis Lab at the University of Arizona estimates that your brain requires roughly 15% of your heart's cardiac output to receive the oxygen and glucose it requires. To put it another way, it needs a lot of blood flowing through it to keep healthy.

When this circulation is disrupted, your brain may suffer damage. As a result, several neurological disorders and disabilities might develop.

Cutaneous Blood Flow

During thermal homeostasis problems, skin blood flow is critical to maintaining normal body temperatures. The sympathetic neural control of skin blood flow includes a noradrenergic vasoconstrictor system and a sympathetic active vasodilator system, the latter of which is responsible for 80 to 90% of the significant cutaneous vasodilation that occurs with whole body heat stress. The magnitude of skin vasodilation with body temperature is striking: during hyperthermia, skin blood flow can reach 6 to 8 L/min. Cutaneous sympathetic vasoconstrictor and vasodilator systems also contribute in baroreflex blood pressure control; this is especially significant under heat stress, when so much cardiac output is delivered to the skin. Local thermal control of cutaneous blood vessels also plays a significant role—in healthy individuals, local warming of the skin can cause maximal vasodilation and involves functions for both local sensory nerves and nitric oxide.

Blood Pressure

Baroreceptor Reflex

Baroreceptors are a type of mechanoreceptor that allows information derived from blood pressure to be relayed within the autonomic nervous system. The data is then sent in a quick succession to change the total peripheral resistance and cardiac output, keeping blood pressure within a predetermined, normalized range.

Atrial Stretch Reflexes

When the heart rate increases in reaction to an increase in atrial pressure, this is known as the Bainbridge reflex (also known as the atrial reflex). Because increased right atrial pressures typically result from raised left heart pressures caused by decreased cardiac output, this is a compensatory mechanism. Increasing the heart rate should result in an increase in cardiac output. In situations of hypotension or hypovolemia, the Bainbridge reflex functions in opposition to the carotid baroreceptor reflex, which raises heart rate when the stretch is reduced.

https://heart.bmj.com/content/33/supplement/9

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E-PORTFOLIO IN PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (PY48) MRS. ABIGAIL INTERNO (COURSE PROFESSOR) LAIRA ANDREI S. OSIAS (STUDENT)

FINALS ASSIGNMENT #1 PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

NAME: OSIAS, LAIRA ANDREI S. SUBJ CODE: PY48 UNIT 4 TOPIC: • Blood, Heart, and Circulation • Cardiac output, Blood Flow & Blood Pressure • The Immune System SPECIFIC GUIDE QUESTIONS: A. Cardiovascular System: Blood • Describe the nature of blood as a part of the cardiovascular system and to explain its functions. Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the body in blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to all the body's cells, and it carries carbon dioxide and other wastes away from the cells to be excreted. Blood vessels transport oxygen-rich blood to the lungs. The heart then sends oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body via arteries. Your veins assist your body in eliminating waste. Excessive blood pressure, high cholesterol, and atherosclerosis can all have an impact on the health of your circulatory system. The heart, blood, and blood vessels all work together to service the body's cells. Blood transports carbon dioxide to the lungs (for exhalation) and picks up oxygen via the network of arteries, veins, and capillaries. The blood transports food nutrients from the small intestine to all cells. • Describe the composition of blood It has four main components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Blood has many different functions, including: transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues. Blood is a fluid connective tissue made up of 55% plasma and 45% formed elements such as WBCs, RBCs, and platelets. Because these living cells are suspended in plasma, blood is referred to be a fluid connective tissue rather than merely fluid. • Describe erythrocytes (red blood cells) in terms of origin, structure, and function. Erythrocytes (red blood cells or RBCs) are hemoglobin-filled anucleate, biconcave cells that transfer oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and organs. They are created in the red bone marrow through a process known as erythropoiesis. Stem cell-derived erythroid precursors go through a series of morphological changes to become mature erythrocytes during this phase. Structure Biconcave shape

Do not contain organelles (including nucleus) Contain only hemoglobin Function Gas exchange and transport between lungs, blood and tissues (oxygen and carbon dioxide) Determining blood type Origin Red bone marrow (flat bones) • Outline the process of erythropoiesis and to describe the structure and function of hemoglobin Erythropoiesis is the process through which a subset of primitive multipotent HSCs commit to the red-cell lineage. Erythropoiesis is characterized by highly specialized functional differentiation and gene expression. RBCs' primary function is to transport oxygen in the blood via the hemoglobin molecule. Structure Hemoglobin consists of four amino acid chains. Proteins are constructed from amino acids. Heme can be found in each of these chains. This is an iron-containing chemical. Heme transports oxygen in the bloodstream as one of its activities. Hemoglobin is responsible for the morphology of RBCs. RBCs like donuts, but with a thin center instead of a hole. Some diseases, such as sickle cell anemia, can result in irregularly shaped RBCs. This can result in major health issues.The pigment in hemoglobin is responsible for the color of blood. Function Hemoglobin binds and transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues in the body. It also transports carbon dioxide from tissues back to the lungs. Both nitric oxide and carbon monoxide can bind to hemoglobin. Carbon monoxide bonds far more firmly to hemoglobin than oxygen. Its presence inhibits oxygen binding to hemoglobin. This is why carbon monoxide poisoning is such a dangerous problem. The pigment in hemoglobin is responsible for the color of blood. • Describe the origin of platelets and to explain how they function. Our bone marrow, the sponge-like substance inside our bones, produces platelets. Stem cells in bone marrow turn into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Platelets, also known as thrombocytes , are special blood cells. These cells control blood clotting to heal a wound and stop the bleeding. Some people have a low platelet count, which puts them at risk for uncontrolled bleeding. • Explain the mechanism of hemostasis The mechanism of hemostasis can divide into four stages. 1) Constriction of the blood vessel. Vasoconstriction is the narrowing (constriction) of blood arteries caused by the contraction of tiny muscles in their walls. Blood flow is delayed or halted as blood arteries constrict. Vasoconstriction can range from mild to severe. It can be caused by disease, medicines, or psychological disorders. 2) Formation of a temporary “platelet plug." The plug provides a

temporary blockage of the break in the vasculature. As such, platelet plug formation occurs after vasoconstriction of the blood vessels but before the creation of the fibrin mesh clot, which is the more permanent solution to the injury. 3) Activation of the coagulation cascade. The activation of a succession of clotting factors, which are proteins involved in blood clotting, is part of the coagulation cascade. Each clotting factor is a serine protease, which is an enzyme that accelerates the degradation of another protein. Clotting factors begin in an inactive state known as zymogens. 4) Formation of “fibrin plug” or the final clot. Hemostasis facilitates a series of enzymatic activations that lead to the formation of a clot with platelets and fibrin polymer. This clot seals the injured area, controls and prevents further bleeding while the tissue regeneration process takes place. • Distinguish between the five types of leukocytes (white blood cells). Types of white blood cells Among your white blood cells are: Monocytes. They have a longer lifespan than many white blood cells and help to break down bacteria. Lymphocytes. They create antibodies to fight against bacteria, viruses, and other potentially harmful invaders. Neutrophils. They kill and digest bacteria and fungi. They are the most numerous type of white blood cell and your first line of defense when infection strikes. Basophils. These small cells seem to sound an alarm when infectious agents invade your blood. They secrete chemicals such as histamine, a marker of allergic disease, that help control the body's immune response. Eosinophils. They attack and kill parasites and cancer cells, and help with allergic responses. • List the major components of blood plasma and to describe the functions of the albumins, globulins, and electrolytes. Specific Components and Their Function The pH and osmotic pressure of blood are maintained by the plasma ions, proteins, and other molecules. Plasma Proteins Plasma proteins are the most abundant substances in the plasma and are present in three major types, namely, albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen. They play specialized roles as follows: Albumin Albumin aids in the maintenance of the blood's colloid osmotic pressure. It is the smallest of the plasma proteins yet accounts for the highest percentage. The blood's colloid osmotic pressure is critical for maintaining a balance between the water inside the blood and the water in the tissue fluid surrounding the cells. When plasma proteins are weak, the water in the plasma leaks out

into the area around the blood vessels, causing interstitial edema, which is a symptom of liver problems, kidney illness, and malnutrition, among other things. Albumin also aids in the transfer of numerous molecules including as medicines, hormones, and fatty acids. Globulins Globulins are classified into three types: alpha, beta, and gamma. Antibodies are gamma- globulins. The alpha globulins contain high-density lipoproteins (HDL), which are vital in transporting fats to cells for the construction of numerous compounds as well as energy metabolism. Electrolytes Sodium is the most abundant ion in plasma, accounting for the majority of plasma osmolarity. Fibrinogen Fibrinogen is a soluble plasma clotting factor precursor that, when in contact with a sticky surface, converts to fibrin, a threadlike protein. The fibrin threads generated in this manner capture platelets to form the initial platelet clot, on which the coagulation process forms a stable blood clot. Inhibitors and Clotting Factors Plasma clotting factors cause a blood clot to develop at any rupture in the smooth endothelium lining of the blood arteries. This not only stops blood loss but also defends the body from invading microorganisms. Coagulation inhibitor proteins prevent blood clotting in undesirable places or at inappropriate periods. Complement Proteins The complement system is another significant group of plasma proteins that are involved in immunological and inflammatory responses to a variety of infectious particles.

• Cardiovascular System: The Heart • What is the relationship between the heart and lungs? The heart and lungs collaborate to ensure that the body receives the oxygen-rich blood it requires to function correctly. The Pulmonary Loop The right side of the heart transports oxygen-depleted blood from the body to the lungs for cleansing and re-oxygenation. The Systemic Loop After the blood has been re-oxygenated, the left side of the heart circulates it throughout the body, ensuring that every part receives the oxygen it requires.

Because the heart and lungs are so closely linked, breathing problems can be caused by problems with either the heart or the lungs, or both. • Trace the development of the embryonic heart from day 18 through day 25. Around 18 to 19 days after conception, the heart develops from an embryonic tissue called mesoderm. Mesoderm is one of three major germ layers that differentiate early in development, giving rise to all subsequent tissues and organs. The cardiogenic area is where the heart begins to form around the head of the embryo. The cardiogenic area begins to generate two strands termed cardiogenic cords in response to chemical signals called factors from the underlying endoderm (another of the three basic germ layers). A lumen forms fast within the cardiogenic cords as they grow. They are now referred to as endocardial tubes. The two tubes merge and move together to produce a single primitive heart tube. The basic heart tube rapidly divides into five different sections. These include the truncus arteriosus, bulbus cordis, primitive ventricle, primitive atrium, and sinus venosus from head to tail. All venous blood initially flows into the sinus venosus, and contractions move the blood from the tail to the head, or from the sinus venosus to the truncus arteriosus. This pattern is considerably different from that of an adult. In a fully grown heart, the five sections of the primitive heart tube develop into recognizable structures. The truncus arteriosus eventually divides to form the ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk. The right ventricle develops from the bulbus cordis. The left ventricle is formed by the primitive ventricle. The primitive atrium gives rise to the anterior sections of the right and left atria, as well as the two auricles. The sinus venosus develops into the right atrium's posterior half, the SA node, and the coronary sinus. As the primitive heart tube grows longer, it begins to fold within the pericardium, finally developing a S shape that aligns the chambers and main vessels like the adult heart. This process takes place between days 23 and 28. The remainder of the heart growth pattern involves septal and valve development, as well as remodeling of the actual chambers. The atria and ventricles are partitioned by the interatrial septum, interventricular septum, and atrioventricular septum by the end of the fifth week, but the fetal blood shunts continue until delivery or shortly after. The atrioventricular valves develop between weeks 5 and 8, and the semilunar valves develop between weeks 5 and 9. • Describe the workings of each of the heart valves Two of the valves, the mitral and the tricuspid valves, move blood from the upper chambers of the heart (the atria) to the lower chambers of the heart (the ventricles). The other two valves, the aortic and pulmonary valves, move blood to the lungs and the rest of the body through the ventricles. The valves open and close as the heart muscle contracts and relaxes, allowing blood to flow into the ventricles and atria at different times. The following is a step-by-step illustration of how the valves in the left ventricle work normally:The aortic valve closes and the mitral valve opens after the left ventricle contracts, allowing blood to pass from the left atrium into the left ventricle. More blood flows into the left ventricle when the left atrium contracts. The mitral

valve shuts and the aortic valve opens when the left ventricle contracts, allowing blood to flow into the aorta. • Distinguish between the pulmonary and systemic circuits of blood flow. Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation The independent systems of pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation in amphibians, birds, and mammals are referred to as the double circulatory system of blood flow (including humans). The adult human heart is divided into two pumps: the right side pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary circulation, and the left side pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation. Blood in one circuit must pass through the heart to enter the other, as seen in Figure below.

Pulmonary Circulation The pulmonary circulation is the part of the circulatory system that transports oxygen-depleted blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the heart. Deoxygenated blood from the body exits the right ventricle via the pulmonary arteries, which convey the blood to each lung, as depicted in Figure below. The only arteries that convey deoxygenated blood are the pulmonary arteries. During respiration, red blood cells in the lungs emit carbon dioxide and suck up oxygen. The oxygenated blood then exits the lungs via the pulmonary veins and returns to the left side of the heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. The oxygenated blood is then distributed to the body through the systemic circulation before returning again to the pulmonary circulation.

Systemic Circulation The cardiovascular system's systemic circulation transports oxygenated blood from the heart to the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart. The aorta transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left ventricle. It is then delivered to the organs and tissues of the body, which absorb the oxygen via a complicated network of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries. Venules collect the deoxygenated blood, which runs into veins before reaching the inferior and superior venae cavae, which return it to the right heart, completing the systemic cycle (see Figure below). The blood is then re-oxygenated in the pulmonary circulation before being returned to the systemic circulation.

• Describe the flow of blood through the heart Blood comes into the right atrium from the body, moves into the right ventricle and is pushed into the pulmonary arteries in the lungs. After picking up oxygen, the blood travels back to the heart through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, to the left ventricle and out to the body's tissues through the aorta. • Explain how the fetal circulation differs from the circulation of a newborn Inside the fetal heart: Blood enters the right atrium, the chamber on the upper right side of the heart. When the blood enters the right atrium, most of it flows through the foramen ovale into the left atrium. Blood then passes into the left ventricle (lower chamber of the heart) and then to the aorta, (the large artery coming from the heart).

From the aorta, blood is sent to the heart muscle itself in addition to the brain. After circulating there, the blood returns to the right atrium of the heart through the superior vena cava. About two thirds of the blood will pass through the foramen ovale as described above, but the remaining one third will pass into the right ventricle, toward the lungs. In the fetus, the placenta does the work of breathing instead of the lungs. As a result, only a small amount of the blood continues on to the lungs. Most of this blood is bypassed or shunted away from the lungs through the ductus arteriosus to the aorta. Most of the circulation to the lower body is supplied by blood passing through the ductus arteriosus. This blood then enters the umbilical arteries and flows into the placenta. In the placenta, carbon dioxide and waste products are released into the mother's circulatory system, and oxygen and nutrients from the mother's blood are released into the fetus' blood. At birth, the umbilical cord is clamped and the baby no longer receives oxygen and nutrients from the mother. With the first breaths of life, the lungs begin to expand. As the lungs expand, the alveoli in the lungs are cleared of fluid. An increase in the baby's blood pressure and a significant reduction in the pulmonary pressures reduces the need for the ductus arteriosus to shunt blood. These changes promote the closure of the shunt. These changes increase the pressure in the left atrium of the heart, which decrease the pressure in the right atrium. The shift in pressure stimulates the foramen ovale to close. The closure of the ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale completes the transition of fetal circulation to newborn circulation. • Describe the conduction system of the heart The network of nodes, cells, and messages that governs your heartbeat is known as the cardiac conduction system. Electrical signals go through your heart every time it beats. These signals drive various regions of your heart to contract and grow. • Describe the innervation of the heart The innervation of the heart refers to the network of nerves that are responsible for the functioning of the heart. The heart is innervated by sympathetic and parasympathetic fibres from the autonomic branch of the peripheral nervous system. The network of nerves supplying the heart is called the cardiac plexus. • Describe the cardiac cycle The cardiac cycle is a sequence of pressure fluctuations that occur within the heart. These pressure variations cause blood to flow through various chambers of the heart and throughout the body. These pressure changes are caused by conductive electrochemical changes within the heart, which cause cardiac muscle to contract concentrically. Valves within the heart direct blood movement, resulting in structured blood propulsion to the next chamber. This cyclic pattern causes pressure and volume variations, which are frequently depicted graphically in the form of a Wiggers diagram or venous pressure tracings. This knowledge is critical for clinical comprehension of cardiac auscultation, pathology, and treatments.

• Cardiovascular System: Vessels and Blood Circulation • Describe the functions of the cardiovascular system in general terms Our heart and blood vessels, which are components of the cardiovascular system, are vital because they deliver oxygen, nutrition, and other beneficial substances to every cell in your body. They also remove trash and carbon dioxide. The major purpose of the cardiovascular system is to give nutrition and remove waste. • To compare arteries, capillaries, and veins as to function Artery vs Vein. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry blood towards the heart. With the exception of pulmonary blood vessels, arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood. Arteries have thick walls with muscle tissue. Veins have thinner walls and use valves to keep your blood flowing. Artery vs Capillary. Arteries carry blood from your heart to your organs. Capillaries transport blood between arteries and veins. Arteries are the largest blood vessels with the thickest walls, and capillaries are the smallest. Arteries are only located deep inside your muscles, but capillaries are inside tissues all over your body. Vein vs Artery. Veins are closer to the surface of your body, and arteries are deep inside your muscles. The walls of a vein are thinner than an artery. Veins carry blood from your organs and towards your heart. Arteries carry blood away from your heart. Vein vs Capillary. Veins have thicker walls than capillaries. Veins use valves to transport blood towards the heart, but capillaries don’t have valves. Capillaries diffuse blood and nutrients between veins and arteries through their thin walls. • What are the four vessels that supply blood to the brain? The brain receives blood from two sources: the internal carotid arteries, which arise at the point in the neck where the common carotid arteries bifurcate, and the vertebral arteries (Figure 1.20). The internal carotid arteries branch to form two major cerebral arteries, the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. • Identify the principal systemic veins. A vein that carries deoxygenated blood (and hence is not a pulmonary vein) and discharges into a vein rather than a capillary (thus, it is not a portal vein). • Define blood pressure and to explain how it is measured and controlled Blood pressure and organ perfusion are regulated by a number of cardiovascular regulatory systems, including the baroreceptor reflex and the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), as well as local vascular processes, such as shear stress-induced endothelial NO release and the myogenic vascular response.

• Explain how blood flow is regulated by neural and renal mechanisms, and how changes in blood pressure alter the heart rate and peripheral resistance The cardiovascular centers of the medulla oblongata are responsible for the neurological regulation of blood pressure and flow. This group of neurons reacts to changes in blood pressure as well as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other variables such as pH. • Define hypertension and state some of the possible and known causes for this condition High blood pressure (hypertension) is a common condition in which the long-term force of the blood against your artery walls is high enough that it may eventually cause health problems, such as heart disease. Blood pressure is determined both by the amount of blood your heart pumps and the amount of resistance to blood flow in your arteries. The more blood your heart pumps and the narrower your arteries, the higher your blood pressure. A blood pressure reading is given in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). It has two numbers. Top number (systolic pressure). The first, or upper, number measures the pressure in your arteries when your heart beats. Bottom number (diastolic pressure). The second, or lower, number measures the pressure in your arteries between beats. You can have high blood pressure for years without any symptoms. Uncontrolled high blood pressure increases your risk of serious health problems, including heart attack and stroke. Fortunately, high blood pressure can be easily detected. And once you know you have high blood pressure, you can work with your doctor to control it.

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-pressure/symptoms-causes/syc- 20373410 lumenlearning.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Double_circulatory_system.jpgCleveland Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation Source: CK-12 Credit: Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (LadyofHats) for CK-12 Foundation Clinic: “Blood Vessels.” The Franklin Institute: “Blood Vessels.”

Tucker, W., Arora, Y., Mahajan, K. StatPearls, “Anatomy, Blood Vessels,” StatPearls Publishing,2020.

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E-PORTFOLIO IN PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (PY48) MRS. ABIGAIL INTERNO (COURSE PROFESSOR) LAIRA ANDREI S. OSIAS (STUDENT)

MIDTERM ASSIGNMENT #2

PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

NAME: OSIAS, LAIRA ANDREI S.

SUBJ CODE: PY48

UNIT 3 TOPIC: 

Sensory Physiology

Endocrine Glands

Muscles

SPECIFIC GUIDE QUESTIONS:

A.  Sensory Physiology

Discuss the following:

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Sensory receptors are primarily classified as chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, or photoreceptors.

Broadly, sensory receptors respond to one of four primary stimuli:

Chemicals (chemoreceptors)

Temperature (thermoreceptors)

Pressure (mechanoreceptors)

Light (photoreceptors)

Cutaneous Sensations

Touch, pressure, and temperature receptors are found on the surface of the skin. The connections between receptors and cutaneous sensations are not well understood. Touch sensitive Meissner corpuscles and deep pressure sensitive Pacinian corpuscles Ruffini ends communicate warmth, while Krause's bulbs communicate cold. Information is sent from the receptors to nerve fibers in the spinal cord, which then travel to the brainstem. They are then sent to a cortical area in the parietal lobe. Skin senses are also subjected to sensory adaptation. A hot tub, for example, can be unbearably hot at first, but after a while, one can sit in it without discomfort.

Pain. The majority of pain receptors in the skin are free nerve endings. Information is transmitted by two types of pathways to the brain by way of the thalamus.

The fast (myelinated) route recognizes localized pain and transmits it to the cortex quickly.

The unmyelinated slow route carries less localized, longer acting pain information (such as that concerning chronic aches).

Taste & Smell

Taste and smell are two distinct sensations with independent receptor organs, but they are inextricably linked. Taste buds, which are made up of unique sensory cells, detect tastants, which are substances found in foods. These cells convey messages to specific parts of the brain when activated, making us aware of our taste sense. Similarly, odorants, or airborne odor molecules, are picked up by specific cells in the nose. Odorants trigger a neuronal response by activating receptor proteins present on hairlike cilia at the ends of sensory cells. Taste and smell messages eventually converge, allowing us to detect food flavors. This strong association is most evident in our perception of food flavors. Food "tastes" differently when the sense of smell is impeded, as anyone who has had a head cold will attest. Actually, the flavor of the food, or the combination of taste and smell, is what is being altered. This is because just the taste of the meal is detected, not the scents. Taste is concerned with discriminating between compounds that have a sweet, salty, sour, bitter, or umami flavor (umami means "savory" in Japanese). Taste and smell interactions, on the other hand, improve our perceptions of the meals we eat. Specialized sensory neurons in a small patch of mucus membrane along the roof of the nose detect airborne odor molecules called odorants. These sensory cells' axons flow through perforations in the overlying bone and enter two extended olfactory bulbs on the underside of the frontal lobe.

Vestibular Apparatus and Equilibrium

The vestibular system is the inner ear's sensory equipment that aids in maintaining postural balance. The vestibular system's input is also crucial for coordinating the position of the head and the movement of the eyes.

The Ears and Hearing

The ear is the organ of hearing and balance. The parts of the ear include:

External or outer ear, consisting of:

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Tympanic membrane (eardrum). The tympanic membrane divides the external ear from the middle ear.

Middle ear (tympanic cavity), consisting of:

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Inner ear, consisting of:

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The ability to see the world around you is determined by your vision. Several components within your eye and brain work together to give you vision. These components are:

Lens

Retina

Optic nerve

Many different parts of your eye and brain work together to assist you in seeing. The following are the primary elements of your vision:

Cornea: The front layer of your eye is called the cornea. The cornea is a dome-shaped structure that bends light entering your eye.

The pupil is the black dot in the middle of your eye that serves as a light gateway. In dark light, it extends, and in brilliant light, it contracts. The iris is in charge of it.

Iris: Your eye color is usually attributed to this area. The iris is a muscle in your eye that regulates the size of your pupil and the amount of light that enters it.

The lens is located behind the iris and pupil. Like a camera, it works with your cornea to concentrate the light that enters your eye. The lens sharpens the image in front of you, allowing you to see all of the details clearly.

The retina is a layer of tissue located in the back of the eye that converts the light that enters your eye into electrical signals. These signals are transmitted to the brain, which recognizes them as images.

Optic nerve: This aspect of your vision serves as a link between the retina and the brain. The electrical signals created in the retina are transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. The brain then generates visuals.

Tears: Tears are supposed to keep your eyes moist and help you focus effectively, despite the fact that they are most usually associated with sobbing. They also aid in the prevention of eye discomfort and infection.

Endocrine Glands

Discuss the following:

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The endocrine system is made up of hormone-secreting endocrine glands. Despite the fact that there are eight primary endocrine glands spread throughout the body, they are nevertheless considered one system since they have comparable functions, influence mechanisms, and interrelationships.

Non-endocrine portions of certain glands serve purposes other than hormone release. The pancreas, for example, includes both an exocrine and an endocrine part that secretes digestion enzymes and hormones. Hormones are secreted by the ovaries and testes, which also create eggs and sperm. Although several organs, such as the stomach, intestines, and heart, create hormones, this is not their major role.

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

Hormones activate target cells by diffusing through the target cell's plasma membrane (lipid-soluble hormones) to bind a receptor protein in the cell's cytoplasm, or by binding a particular receptor protein in the target cell's cell membrane (water-soluble proteins).

Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is a small pea-sized gland that plays a major role in regulating vital body functions and general wellbeing. It is referred to as the body's 'master gland' because it controls the activity of most other hormone-secreting glands.

Adrenal Glands

Adrenal glands are small, triangular-shaped glands that sit on top of both kidneys. Hormones produced by the adrenal glands serve to regulate your metabolism, immunological system, blood pressure, stress response, and other vital activities.

Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

Iodine from meals is used by the thyroid gland to produce two thyroid hormones that control how the body uses energy. The parathyroid glands are a group of four small glands that sit behind the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands make a hormone (parathyroid hormone) that helps regulate calcium levels in the blood.

Pancreas and Other Endocrine Glands

Glands are organs in the body that generate and release chemicals. The pancreas has two primary functions: exocrine and endocrine. Exocrine function: produces chemicals (enzymes) that aid digesting. Endocrine function: releases hormones that regulate the quantity of sugar in your blood.

Paracrine & Autocrine Regulation

(Autocrine glands generate hormones that operate on their own glandular cells, such as prostaglandins; paracrine glands create hormones that are released into the extracellular matrix and diffuse to neighboring cells, such as islets of Langerhans - somatostatin.) Diffusible chemicals bind to receptors on the same cell from which they were released in autocrine signaling. Insulin was the first transmitter to be implicated in the autocrine regulation of -cell function.

Muscles

Discuss the following:

Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscles make up 30 to 40% of your total body weight. They're the muscles that attach to your bones and allow you to move and operate in a variety of ways. Skeletal muscles are voluntary, which means you may choose when and how they perform.

Mechanisms of Contraction

Abstract. When the thin actin and thick myosin filaments slip past each other, muscle contraction occurs. Cross-bridges that stretch from myosin filaments and cyclically engage with actin filaments when ATP is hydrolyzed are thought to be the driving force behind this activity.

Contractions of Skeletal Muscles

The neuromuscular junction, which is the synapse between a motoneuron and a muscle fiber, is where skeletal muscle contraction begins. The presynaptic membrane's voltage-gated calcium (Ca2+) channels open when action potentials are sent to the motoneuron and then depolarized.

Energy Requirements of Skeletal Muscles

The breakdown of ATP provides the energy required for muscle contraction, but the amount of ATP in muscle cells is only enough to fuel a brief contraction.

Neural Control of Skeletal Muscles

Concentric, eccentric, and isometric contractions, muscle fiber recruitment, and muscle tone are all controlled by neural control. The role of motor units in nervous system control of skeletal muscles is critical.

Cardiac & Smooth Muscles

Cardiac muscle cells are found in the heart's walls, appear striped (striated), and are controlled involuntarily. Except for the heart, smooth muscle fibers are found in the walls of hollow visceral organs (such as the liver, pancreas, and intestines), are spindle-shaped, and are controlled involuntarily.

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E-PORTFOLIO IN PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (PY48) MRS. ABIGAIL INTERNO (COURSE PROFESSOR) LAIRA ANDREI S. OSIAS (STUDENT)

MIDTERM ASSIGNMENT #1

PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

NAME: OSIAS,  LAIRA ANDREI S. 

SUBJ CODE: PY48

UNIT 2 TOPIC: 

The Nervous System 

Central Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System

SPECIFIC GUIDE QUESTIONS:

A. The Nervous system

Distinguish the difference between the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and autonomic nervous system.

CNS is one of the two primary divisions of the nervous system, while ANS is one of the two divisions of the PNS. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is another division of the nervous system, while the somatic nervous system is another division of the PNS. The brain and spinal cord make up the CNS, whereas the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nervous systems make up the ANS.

The nervous system is divided into two parts: the CNS and the ANS. They are in charge of regulating the body's activities by reacting to both internal and external inputs. The CNS' primary function is to receive sensory input from the PNS, process it, and send it to various parts of the body via the PNS, whereas the ANS' primary function is to control involuntary body functions such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal.

Describe the formation of the myelin sheath.

In the PNS and CNS, myelin is generated by the innermost sheet-like glial process in touch with the axon spiraling around it and spinning out many layers of overlapping membrane. Except for the deepest and outermost layers of the myelin sheath, cytoplasm is ejected.

Classify neuroglia and list the different types of neuroglia, including their location and function

Neuroglia in the CNS

There are four types of neuroglia found within the central nervous system:

Astrocytes – maintain the blood brain barrier and preserve the chemical environment by recycling ions and neurotransmitters

Oligodendrocytes – myelinate axons in the central nervous system and provide an overall structural framework

Ependymal cells – line ventricles (brain) and central canal (spine) and are involved in the production of cerebrospinal fluid

Microglia – remove cell debris, wastes and pathogens via phagocytosis

Neuroglia in the PNS

There are two types of neuroglia found within the peripheral nervous system:

Schwann cells – myelinate axons in the peripheral nervous system

Satellite cells – regulate nutrient and neurotransmitter levels around neurons in ganglia

Why are Microglia frequently considered part of the body’s immune system?

Microglia make up a large component of the CNS cell population, accounting for 5 percent to 20% of all glial cells and being as numerous as neurons. The ability of microglia to create large innate and adaptive immune responses is a critical function. Microglia are engaged in the CNS's first line of innate immunity. The interaction between the T cell receptor and the processed antigen peptide presented on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules by antigen presenting cells is required for the adaptive immune system to generate specific, long-lasting responses. Microglia are also seen throughout the tumor rather than in areas of necrosis, and there is no evidence of microglia phagocytosis of glioma cells or debris. Recent research suggests that glioma-infiltrating microglia/macrophages may promote tumor growth by enabling tumor microenvironment immunosuppression. Microglia can be powerful immune effector cells with a wide range of functions when triggered, and they mediate both innate and adaptive responses during CNS injury and disease while staying dormant in the steady state. Their ability to bridge the gap between the immune-privileged CNS and the peripheral immune system, as well as their high prevalence in gliomas, making them a promising target for glioma immunotherapy. A greater knowledge of the microglia–glioma interaction could lead to more effective approaches for manipulating the glioma microenvironment and generating specific and long-lasting anti-glioma immunity. The role of microglia in CNS immunity is reviewed, with an emphasis on recent glioma immunology breakthroughs.

Describe the resting membrane potential

The resting membrane potential, or simply the resting potential, is the voltage across the membrane of a non-signaling neuron. Ion concentration gradients across the membrane and membrane permeability to each type of ion dictate the resting potential.

Describe the chain of events associated with an action potential.

Nerve signals are called action potentials. Neurons generate and send these signals along with their processes to the target tissues. They will be activated, inhibited, or regulated in some way in response to stimuli.

From an electrical standpoint, an action potential is created by a stimulus with a certain value indicated in millivolts [mV]. An action potential is not triggered by all stimuli. An effective stimulus must have a sufficient electrocal value to reduce the nerve cell's negativity to the action potential threshold. Subthreshold, threshold, and suprathreshold stimuli exist in this way. Subthreshold stimuli are incapable of eliciting an action potential. Suprathreshold stimuli generate action potentials as well, but they are stronger than threshold stimuli.

When a stimulation raises the membrane potential above the threshold potential, an action potential is created. Typically, the threshold potential is between -50 and -55 mV. It's crucial to understand that the action potential follows the all-or-none rule. This means that subthreshold stimuli have no effect, whereas threshold and suprathreshold stimuli cause the excitable cell to respond fully.

Is there a difference between an action potential induced by a threshold or suprathreshold potential? No, that is not the case. An action potential has the same length and amplitude every time. Increased stimulus strength, on the other hand, produces an increase in the frequency of action potentials. The amplitude and length of an action potential do not decrease or weaken as it propagates down the nerve fiber. Furthermore, after generating one action potential, neurons become refractory to inputs for a period of time during which they are unable to create another action potential.

Define synapse and synaptic transmission

A synapse is a small space between two neurons where nerve impulses are transferred from a presynaptic (sending) neuron's axon to the dendrite of a postsynaptic (receiving) neuron by a neurotransmitter. The synaptic cleft or synaptic gap is what it's called.

A synapse is made up of the following elements:

The neurotransmitters are stored in the presynaptic terminals (chemical messengers).

Synaptic clefts are the spaces between two neurons.

The locations for receptors are found in postsynaptic terminals (molecules which receives signals for a cell).

An action potential invades a nerve terminal, opening Ca2+ channels that gate a highly localized, transitory rise in intracellular Ca2+ at the active zone, triggering synaptic transmission (Fig. 1A). Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicle exocytosis, which releases neurotransmitters from the vesicles and starts synaptic transmission. Katz and Miledi uncovered this key process in their groundbreaking work on the neuromuscular junction (1967). Many "model" synapses have been researched, including giant squid axon synapses (Augustine et al. 1985) and rat cerebellum parallel fiber synapses (Sabatini and Regehr 1996), but the calyx of Held synapses in the brainstem has been defined in most detail ( reviewed in Meinrenken et al. 2003).

Describe synaptic plasticity & synaptic Inhibition

The ability of the brain to change and adapt to new information is known as plasticity. Synaptic plasticity occurs in synapses, which are the communication connectors between neurons.

In 1949, Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb postulated that synapses could alter and that this change was dependent on how active or passive they were. Synaptic plasticity has now become one of the most intensely explored subjects in all of neuroscience due to its possible contribution to memory storage. Synaptic plasticity regulates the efficiency with which two neurons interact. The volume of a discussion can be compared to the strength of communication between two synapses. When neurons communicate, they do so at varied volumes: some whisper, while others yell. The synaptic strength, or volume setting of the synapse, is not constant and can alter in the short and long term. These changes in synapse strength are referred to as synaptic plasticity.The feedback and feedforward circuit topologies mediate synaptic inhibition. When excitatory principal neurons synapse onto inhibitory interneurons, the inhibitory interneurons project back to the primary neurons and suppress them (negative-feedback loop). When axons synapse directly onto inhibitory interneurons, feedforward inhibition occurs, suppressing downstream main neurons.

Central Nervous System

Describe the structure and functions of the central nervous system in general terms

The brain, spinal cord, and neurons make up the central nervous system. Getty Images/Sciepro/Science Photo Library The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS has three main functions: receiving sensory information, processing information, and sending out motor signals.

Describe the embryonic development of the brain into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain,

and to explain how this correlates with the division of the brain into five mature regions derived from the three initial ones.

The five brain divisions make it easy to categorize the placement of brain components by area. When it comes to diagnosing lesions in patients, the phrases forebrain and hindbrain have clinical importance.

Embryonic

Brain Division

Derived

Brain Structures

Definitive

Brain Cavities

Associated

Cranial Nerves

FOREBRAIN

Telencephalon

Diencephalon

Cerebrum

Thalamus, Hypothalamus,...

Lateral ventricles

Third ventricle

Olfactory (I)

Optic (II)

MIDBRAIN

Mesencephalon

Midbrain

Mesencephalic aqueduct

III & IV

HINDBRAIN

Metencephalon

Myelencephalon

Pons & Cerebellum

Medulla oblongata

Fourth ventricle

Fourth ventricle

Trigeminal (V)

VI - XII

Describe the cerebrum and the functions of the cerebral lobes

Frontal lobes: motor areas control movements of voluntary skeletal muscles. association area carry on higher intellectual processes such as those required for concentrating, planning, complex, problem solving and judging the consequences of behavior

Parietal lobes: sensory areas are responsible for the sensations of temperature, touch, pressure, and pain involving the skin. Association areas function in understanding speech and in using words to express thoughts and feeling

Temporal Lobes: sensory area are responsible for hearing. Association areas interpret sensory experiences and remember visual scenes, music, and other complex sensory patterns.

Occipital Lobes: sensory area are responsible for vision. Association areas combine visual images with other sensory experiences.

Describe the location and structure of the diencephalon and to explain the autonomic functions of its chief components—the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and pituitary gland.

The diencephalon (also known as the "interbrain") is the part of the vertebrate neural tube that gives rise to the posterior forebrain components. The prosencephalon, the most anterior vesicle of the neural tube that subsequently forms both the diencephalon and the telencephalon, creates the forebrain during development. In adults, the diencephalon is located between the cerebrum and the brain stem at the upper end of the brain stem. The thalamus, subthalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus are the four separate parts of the brain.

Other structures that are part of the diencephalon are:

Anterior and posterior paraventricular nuclei

Medial and lateral habenular nuclei

Stria medullaris thalami

Posterior commissure

Pineal gland

Functions of Primary Diencephalon Structures

The thalamus is a type of information switchboard that is thought to operate as a relay between various subcortical locations and the cerebral cortex. Every sensory system (save the olfactory system) has a thalamic nucleus that receives sensory signals and transmits them to the major cortical area associated with it. The thalamus is also involved in the regulation of sleep and waking states. Thalamic nuclei and the cerebral cortex have significant reciprocal connections, generating thalamo-cortico-thalamic circuits that are thought to be involved with consciousness. The thalamus is responsible for controlling arousal, awareness, and activity. The thalamus can be damaged and cause lifelong coma.

The subthalamus connects to the globus pallidus, a telencephalon basal nucleus. It governs skeletal muscle movements by receiving afferent connections from the substantia nigra and striatum.

The hypothalamus conducts a variety of critical functions (e.g., metabolic process regulation), the majority of which are related directly or indirectly to visceral activity regulation via other brain regions and the autonomic nervous system. It produces and secretes specific neurohormones known as hypothalamic-releasing hormones, which either stimulate or inhibit pituitary hormone release. Body temperature, appetite, thirst, weariness, sleep, and circadian cycles are all controlled by the hypothalamus.

The limbic system and other regions of the brain communicate through the epithalamus. The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which is involved in circadian rhythms, and regulates motor pathways and emotions, among other activities of its components.

Describe the metencephalon

The embryonic component of the hindbrain, the metencephalon, evolves into the pons and cerebellum. It houses a piece of the fourth ventricle as well as the trigeminal nerve (CN V), abducens nerve (CN VI), facial nerve (CN VII), and vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) (CN VIII).

Describe the location and structure of the medulla oblongata and to state its functions

The brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord through the medulla oblongata, which is positioned at the base of our brain. It is responsible for transmitting messages from your spinal cord to your brain. It's also necessary for maintaining the health of your cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

The medulla oblongata is responsible for sending signals from the spinal cord to the brain's higher levels and for controlling autonomic functions like heartbeat and respiration.

The ventral medulla (frontal portion) and the dorsal medulla (back portion) are the two primary portions of the medulla (the rear portion; also known as the tegmentum). The pyramidal tracts are located within a pair of triangular structures termed pyramids in the ventral medulla. The corticospinal tract (which runs from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord) and the corticobulbar tract make up the pyramidal tracts (running from the motor cortex of the frontal lobe to the cranial nerves in the brainstem). The vast majority (80 to 90 percent) of corticospinal tracts cross in the lower region of the medulla (just above the connection with the spinal cord), forming the point known as the decussation of the pyramids. The olivary bodies, which are positioned laterally on the pyramids, are likewise housed in the ventral medulla.

Describe the protective meninges of the CNS.

Within its three layers, the meninges are the fibrous covering of the central nervous system (CNS), which contains a wide variety of cell types (dura, arachnoid, and pia). The brain and spinal cord are protected by three layers of membranes known as meninges. The pia mater is the fragile inner layer. The arachnoid, a web-like structure filled with fluid that cushions the brain, is the middle layer. The dura mater is the robust outer layer.

Describe the properties and functions of cerebrospinal fluid.

The CSF serves a variety of defensive and metabolic purposes. By providing a fluid buffer, the CSF works as a shock absorber, cushioning the brain from harm. It provides neutral buoyancy, preventing the brain from pressing against the interior surface of the skull's bones, crushing blood vessels and cranial nerves.

Explain the importance of the blood–brain barrier in maintaining homeostasis within the brain.

The blood–brain barrier is important for managing the entrance and efflux of biological molecules that are necessary for brain metabolism and neuronal function. As a result, the BBB's functional and structural integrity is critical for maintaining the brain microenvironment's homeostasis.

List the common neurotransmitters of the brain, along with their functions.

Glutamate

 excitatory

all behaviours (learning, memory)

Acetylcholine

 excitatory

muscular movement, memory

Alzheimer's Disease, paralysis (botulism) (undersupply)

convulsions (oversupply)

Dopamine

excitatory or inhibitory

voluntary movement, pleasure, motivation, learning

Parkinson's Disease (initiating movement), depression (undersupply)

Schizophrenia (oversupply)

GABA

 inhibitory

all behaviours (anxiety, motor control)

inhibits brain function (oversupply)

Huntington's Disease (destruction of GABA neurons), loss of motor control (undersupply)

Serotonin

inhibitory

mood, pleasure

prozac works by blocking reuptake of serotonin

depression (undersupply)

Endorphins

inhibitory

inhibiting pain

insensitivity to pain (oversupply)

hypersensitivity to pain (undersupply)

Describe the structure of the spinal cord.

From our brainstem to our low back, the spinal cord is a cylindrical structure that runs through the core of our spine. It's a delicate structure made up of nerve bundles and cells that transmit instructions from our brain to the rest of our bodies. One of the most important aspects of our neurological system is our spinal cord. In adults, the vertebrae are organized into five zones that support and protect the spinal cord. Seven Cervical Vertebrae, twelve Thoracic Vertebrae, five Lumbar Vertebrae, five Sacral (united to create the sacrum in adulthood), and four Coccygeal Vertebrae make up the spine (fused to form the coccyx).

Autonomic Nervous System

Review the organization of the nervous system and to distinguish between the structural and functional divisions

The Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System

The brain, the nervous tissue housed within the cranium, and the spinal cord, the extension of nervous tissue within the vertebral column, are most likely included in your mental image of the nervous system. The nervous system also includes the neural tissue that extends from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body (nerves). The central nervous system (CNS) contains the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) contains the nerves. The brain is enclosed within the cranial cavity of the skull, while the spinal cord is housed within the vertebral canal of the vertebral column. The peripheral nervous system gets its name from the fact that it is located outside of the brain and spinal cord.

The Nervous System's Functional Divisions

The nervous system can be split into functional groups in addition to the physical divisions indicated above. The nervous system is responsible for obtaining information about our surroundings (sensory functions, sensations), creating reactions to that information (motor functions, responses), and coordinating the two (integration).

Sensation. Sensation is the process of obtaining information about the environment, whether it's what's going on outside (such as heat from the sun) or inside the body (such as pain) (ie: heat from muscle activity). These sensations are called stimuli (singular = stimulus), and different sensory receptors perceive different stimuli. The afferent (sensory) branch of the PNS transmits sensory information to the CNS via the PNS nerves. Somatic sensory information comes from sensory receptors in the skin, skeletal muscles, or joints; visceral sensory information comes from sensory receptors in the blood vessels or internal organs. This is referred to as integration. Stimuli are compared to or integrated with other stimuli, memories of past stimuli, or a person's status at a given time in the CNS. As a result, a specific answer will be generated.

Explain the Neural Control of Involuntary Effectors: Autonomic Neurons & Visceral Effectors Organ

Cardiac muscle (the heart), smooth (visceral) muscles, and glands are all effectors that respond to autonomic regulation. These are organs and blood arteries from the viscera (organs within the bodily cavity).

Involuntary functions are controlled by the visceral (or autonomic) motor system, which is mediated by smooth muscle fibers, cardiac muscle fibers, and glands. Part of the peripheral nervous system is the visceral nervous system. It is made up of all the nerves that transmit data between the CNS and the visceral organs. Afferent nerves carry sensory messages from numerous internal organs to the CNS, which prompt reactions via efferent autonomic nerves.

Differentiate the divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic & Parasympathetic

The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) is in charge of maintaining homeostasis and the body's "rest and digest" function. The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is in charge of the "fight or flight" reaction and controls the body's responses to perceived threats.

The PNS and SNS are both parts of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which controls the body's involuntary activities.

Compare the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS as to origin of preganglionic fibers, location of ganglia, and neurotransmitter substances.

Because sympathetic ganglia are generally closer to the spinal cord, sympathetic preganglionic fibers tend to project to and synapse with the postganglionic fiber close to the target organ, they are shorter than parasympathetic preganglionic fibers.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve systems make up the autonomic nervous system. During a threat or perceived danger, the sympathetic nervous system stimulates the fight or flight reaction, whereas the parasympathetic nervous system calms the body.

Discuss the Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System in relation to:

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The fundamental distinction between the adrenergic and cholinergic pathways is that the adrenergic system uses the neurotransmitters adrenaline and noradrenaline, whereas the cholinergic pathway uses the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Alpha, beta-1, and beta-2 are the three types of sympathetic or adrenergic receptors. The arteries are home to alpha-receptors. The arteries constrict when the alpha receptor is activated by epinephrine or norepinephrine. This raises blood pressure and boosts blood flow back to the heart.

Responses to Adrenergic Stimulation

The adrenergic nervous system (ANS) is a collection of organs and neurons that act as neurotransmitters for adrenaline (epinephrine) and/or noradrenaline (norepinephrine). One of the key neurohormonal systems that regulates cardiovascular function, including smooth muscle tone, is the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The effects of adrenergic stimulations include that a variety of stimuli excite the sympathetic nervous system, causing catecholamine levels to rise. Cardiovascular disorders, such as cardiac hypertrophy, stroke, coronary artery disease, and heart failure, are caused by long-term overstimulation of the -adrenergic receptor (AR) in response to catecholamines.

Responses to Cholinergic Stimulation

Cholinergic stimulation, which promotes calcium-dependent exocytosis of the contents of the secretory granules, is the major regulator of catecholamine release from the adrenal medulla. The Cholinergic System Interacts with Non-Neuronal Cells to Modulate Memory and Hippocampal Plasticity. Memory is harmed by degeneration of central cholinergic neurons, while improving cholinergic synapses helps cognitive functions.

Other Autonomic Neurotransmitters

The autonomic nervous system controls a number of bodily functions that occur without conscious effort. The autonomic system is a component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiological activities like heartbeat, blood flow, breathing, and digestion.

Organs with Dual Innervation

The parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems exert opposing effects on these organs, making them "dually innervated." The heart, for example, is innervated by both divisions of the ANS; parasympathetic innervation slows heart rate while sympathetic innervation speeds it up.

Organs Without Dual Innervation

Certain effectors in your body do not receive dual innervation. Only sympathetic nerves supply sweat glands, arrector pili muscles, adrenal medula, liver, adipocytes, lacrymal glands, radial muscle of the iris, juxtaglomerular apparatus, uterus, and most vascular smooth muscles.

Control of the Autonomic Nervous System by Higher Brain Centers

The amygdala is a limbic system structure that regulates the hypothalamus in the control of the autonomic and endocrine systems. The autonomic system is controlled by these higher centers via brain stem centers, predominantly in the medulla, such as the cardiovascular center.

Discuss what is cranial nerves and spinal nerves

The cranial nerves are a group of 12 nerves that run along the back of your head. Electrical signals are sent between your brain, face, neck, and body by cranial nerves. Taste, smell, hear, and feel sensations are all assisted by your cranial nerves. They also aid in facial emotions, eye blinking, and tongue movement.

Spinal nerves are structures that acquire sensory information from peripheral body receptors and send it to the central nervous system. Similarly, the spinal nerves convey motor commands from the CNS to the peripheral muscles and glands, allowing the brain's directions to be carried out swiftly.

Identify the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their functions.

Any of the paired nerves of the peripheral nervous system that connect the muscles and sensory organs of the head and thoracic region directly to the brain in vertebrates is known as a cranial nerve.

There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in higher vertebrates (reptiles, birds, and mammals): olfactory (CN I), optic (CN II), oculomotor (CN III), trochlear (CN IV), trigeminal (CN V), abducent (or abducens; CN VI), facial (CN VII), vestibulocochlear (CN VIII), glossopharyngeal (CN IX), vagus (CN (CN XII). Fish and amphibians have ten pairs of lower vertebrates. In humans, a 13th pair, known as the terminal nerve (CN 0), is occasionally recognized, though it is uncertain whether it is a vestigial structure or a functioning nerve.

Locate and describe the spinal nerves.

Spinal nerves are big nerves that are uniformly distributed throughout the spinal cord and spine. The spinal cord is protected by the spine, which is a column of vertebrae bones. Because both sensory and motor nerve roots merge to form these spinal nerves, they are quite big. These nerve roots originate from the spinal cord, with sensory roots emerging from the back and motor roots emerging from the front. Each nerve root contains roughly 8 nerve rootlets, which unite to produce the spinal nerves that radiate from the spinal cord.

On either side, the spinal nerves are produced within a few centimetres of the spine. Some nerve groups join together to form a huge plexus of nerves, while others split up into smaller branches. Through a hole between neighboring vertebrae, spinal nerves emerge from the spinal column (known as intervertebral foramen). Except for the first pair of spinal nerves, which emerge between the occipital bone and the topmost vertebrae, this is the situation for all of the spinal nerves.

Neuroanatomy words anatomically. A spinal nerve is a mixed nerve that connects the spinal cord to the rest of the body, carrying motor, sensory, and autonomic data. In the human body there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, one on each side of the vertebral column.

Explain the five components in a typical reflex arc

A reflex is an automatic, quick, involuntary, and predictable response that occurs without being taught. A reflex arc is a neuronal circuit that plays a role in reflexes. The reflex arc is made up of five parts:

Sensory receptor: Large enough stimuli generates an action potential in the sensory neuron.

Sensory Neuron (afferent neuron: Propagates the AP synapses with neuron in spinal cord or brainstem.

Integrating center (association neuron): In grey matter of cns; can consist of one or multiple association neurons.

Motor neuron (efferent neuron): Carries the AP initiated by integration center to effector.

Effector: Muscle or gland

Distinguish further between the ANS and the somatic system

Sensory and motor pathways exist in the somatic nervous system, whereas motor pathways exist primarily in the autonomic nervous system.

Internal organs and glands are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, whereas muscles and movement are controlled by the somatic nervous system.

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) are two subsystems of the autonomic nervous system (SNS).

[landrei9]

E-PORTFOLIO IN PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (PY48) MRS. ABIGAIL INTERNO (COURSE PROFESSOR) LAIRA ANDREI S. OSIAS (STUDENT)

PRELIM ASSIGNMENT #4

PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

NAME: LAIRA ANDREI S. OSIAS

SUBJ CODE: PY48

UNIT 1 TOPIC:

The study of body functions 

Chemical Composition of the Body

Cell Structure and Genetic Control

Enzymes & Energy

Cell respiration & metabolism

Interactions between cells & the extracellular environment

SPECIFIC GUIDE QUESTIONS:

ENZYMES AS CATALYSTS

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Enzymes (and other catalysts) work by lowering the activation energy and so speeding up the reaction. Because both paths must travel through the same transition state, the increased rate is the same in both directions.

Describe how enzymes are named.

Enzymes are catalysts that, within the mild conditions of temperature, pH, and pressure of the cells, carry out chemical reactions at an amazing high rate. They are characterized by remarkable efficiency and specificity. Substrates are the substances on which enzymes act. Enzymes are named by adding the suffix -ase to the name of the substrate that they modify (i.e., urease and tyrosinase), or the type of reaction they catalyze (dehydrogenase, decarboxylase). Some have arbitrary names (pepsin and trypsin). The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology assigns each enzyme a name and a number to identify them.

CONTROL OF ENZYME ACTIVITY

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Temperature: Raising temperature generally speeds up a reaction, and lowering temperature slows down a reaction. However, extreme high temperatures can cause an enzyme to lose its shape (denature) and stop working. pH: Each enzyme has an optimum pH range. Changing the pH outside of this range will slow enzyme activity. Coenzymes are organic molecules and quite often bind loosely to the active site of an enzyme and aid in substrate recruitment, whereas cofactors do not bind the enzyme. Cofactors are "helper molecules" and can be inorganic or organic in nature.

Explain the law of mass action in reversible reactions.

The law of mass action states that any reversible chemical reaction will reach a state of dynamic equilibrium when the ratio of concentrations of products to reactants is equal to a specific constant for that reaction called the equilibrium constant.

Describe a metabolic pathway and how it is affected by end-product inhibition and inborn errors of metabolism

Feedback inhibition is another approach to control a metabolic pathway. This occurs when a metabolic pathway's end product attaches to an enzyme at the start of the route. This process halts the metabolic pathway, preventing additional end product production until the concentration of the end product drops. Inborn errors of metabolism are rare genetic (inherited) disorders in which the body cannot properly turn food into energy. The disorders are usually caused by defects in specific proteins (enzymes) that help break down (metabolize) parts of food.

A food product that is not broken down into energy can build up in the body and cause a wide range of symptoms. Several inborn errors of metabolism cause developmental delays or other medical problems if they are not controlled.

BIOENERGETICS

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Exergonic reactions release energy; endergonic reactions absorb it. ATP captures the chemical energy released by the combustion of nutrients and transfers it to reactions that require energy, e.g. the building up of cell components, muscle contraction, transmission of nerve messages and many other functions. ATP has been termed the cell's energy currency.

Distinguish between oxidation and reduction reactions, and explain the functions of NAD

and FAD

Oxidation occurs when a reactant loses electrons during the reaction. Reduction occurs when a reactant gains electrons during the reaction. This often occurs when metals are reacted with acid. NAD after being reduced (accepting electrons), will deliver hydrogens and electrons that it picks up to processes that can use them to make ATP.

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a cofactor for cytochrome-b5 reductase, the enzyme that maintains hemoglobin in its functional reduced state, and for glutathione reductase, an enzyme that also protects erythrocytes from oxidative damage.

[landrei9]

E-PORTFOLIO IN PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (PY48) MRS. ABIGAIL INTERNO (COURSE PROFESSOR) LAIRA ANDREI S. OSIAS (STUDENT)

PRELIM ASSIGNMENT #3

PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

NAME: OSIAS, LAIRA ANDREI S.

SUBJ CODE: PY48

UNIT 1 TOPIC:

The study of body functions 

Chemical Composition of the Body

Cell Structure and Genetic Control

Enzymes & Energy

Cell respiration & metabolism

Interactions between cells & the extracellular environment

SPECIFIC GUIDE QUESTIONS:

Plasma Membrane and Associated Structures

Describe the structure of the plasma membrane, cilia, and flagella 

Cilia and flagella have a core composed of microtubules that are connected to the plasma membrane and arranged in what is known as a 9 + 2 pattern. The pattern is so named because it consists of a ring of nine microtubule paired sets (doublets) that encircle two singular microtubules

Describe amoeboid movement, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis,

and exocytosis.

Amoeboid movement

Amoeboid movement is expressed by a variety of invertebrate and vertebrate cells, but has been the most intensely studied in the amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. This cell displays an ellipsoidal profile with either a monopodal or polypodal form, and undergoes a rapid (e.g., >20 μm/min) gliding movement that involves repetitive cycles of protrusion and contraction with little adhesiveness to the substrate. This lack of adhesiveness is consistent with the absence of integrin expression by the amoeba (Friedl, 2004). The amoeba uses two mechanically distinct mechanisms to push itself forward (Yoshida and Soldati, 2006) a filopodia–lamellipodia mechanism that depends on actin polymerization and a bleb mechanism in which a local region of membrane where the cortical‐CSK has been disrupted is pushed outward by cytoplasmic pressure generated by myosin II.

Phagocytosis

Large particles, such as bacteria, cell debris, or even complete cells, are engulfed by cells during phagocytosis. The extension of pseudopodia—an actin-based movement of the cell surface—is triggered when the particle binds to receptors on the surface of the phagocytic cell. The pseudopodia finally encircle the particle, and their membranes combine to create a phagosome, a huge intracellular vesicle with a diameter of more than 0.25 m. The phagosomes subsequently fuse with the lysosomes to form phagolysosomes, which breakdown the ingested material via lysosomal acid hydrolases. Some of the absorbed membrane proteins are recycled to the plasma membrane during phagolysosome maturation, as explained in the next section for receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Pinocytosis

Pinocytosis is an energy-requiring process in which the cell membrane invaginates around large macromolecules that exhibit negligible diffusion properties. Although the contents of pinocytotic vesicles are subject to intracellular digestion, studies have demonstrated that the vesicles can move across the cytoplasm and fuse with the membrane at the opposite pole. This appears to be the mechanism by which immunoglobulin G is transferred from the maternal to the fetal circulation. Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a major activity of the plasma membranes of eukaryotic cells. More than 20 different receptors have been shown to be selectively internalized by this pathway. Extracellular fluids are also incorporated into coated vesicles as they bud from the plasma membrane, so receptor-mediated endocytosis results in the nonselective uptake of extracellular fluids and their contents (fluid phase endocytosis), in addition to the internalization of specific macromolecules. Coated pits typically occupy 1 to 2% of the surface area of the plasma membrane and are estimated to have a lifetime of 1 to 2 minutes. From these figures, one can calculate that receptor-mediated endocytosis results in the internalization of an area of cell surface equivalent to the entire plasma membrane approximately every 2 hours. 

Exocytosis

Exocytosis is the fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane and results in the discharge of vesicle content into the extracellular space and the incorporation of new proteins and lipids into the plasma membrane.

CYTOPLASM AND ITS ORGANELLES

Describe the structure and functions of the cytoskeleton, lysosomes, peroxisomes,

mitochondria, and ribosomes.

The cytoskeleton is a structure that helps cells maintain their shape and internal organization, and it also provides mechanical support that enables cells to carry out essential functions like division and movement. There is no single cytoskeletal component. Rather, several different components work together to form the cytoskeleton.The cytoskeleton of a cell is made up of microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments. These structures give the cell its shape and help organize the cell's parts. In addition, they provide a basis for movement and cell division.

A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes. Lysosomes are involved with various cell processes. They break down excess or worn-out cell parts. They may be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria.

Peroxisomes are small vesicles, single membrane-bound organelles found in the eukaryotic cells. They contain digestive enzymes for breaking down toxic materials in the cell and oxidative enzymes for metabolic activity.

​Mitochondria. Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Ribosomes are found 'free' in the cell cytoplasm and also attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes receive information from the cell nucleus and construction materials from the cytoplasm. Ribosomes translate information encoded in messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA).

Describe the structure and functions of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex, and

explain how they interact.

The Golgi body (or Golgi complex, apparatus), and Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are both organelles found in the majority of eukaryotic cells.  They are very closely associated and show both similarities and differences in structure and function. 

Structure

The Golgi body consists of stacks of flattened membrane-enclosed and fluid-filled saccules (cisternae). It is also associated with tubules continuous with the edges of the saccules and vesicles. Unlike the ER, the Golgi shows both structural and functional polarization.

It is not entirely understood how this is maintained however it seems to underlie the directional flow of materials from the cis (input) to the trans (output) cisternae amongst other forms of transport. It might also explain how the secretory vesicles form on the cis face of the Golgi and mature and dissociate from the trans face on the opposite side of the stack.

ER

Similarly, the ER comprises an extensive network of  membrane-enclosed sacs and tubules. It has such a physically wide reach that in most eukaryotic cells, it is the largest organelle.  It also has a much larger internal structure than the Golgi body to carry out its activities. There are two distinct sub-compartments of the ER – the rough and the smooth ER. The rough ER is characterized by fairly flat, sealed sacs which are studded with membrane-bound ribosomes on the outer surface (which is exposed to the cytosol). In contrast, the smooth ER has a more tubular structure and does not have ribosomes on its surface hence its smooth appearance.

Function

As the ER is composed of the distinct rough and smooth surfaces, the organelle has numerous diverse functions. The rough ER is required for the folding and processing of membrane, transmembrane and secreted proteins. More specifically, chaperone proteins within the ER assist in folding polypeptide chains into their three-dimensional structures. Further modifications such as disulfide bridge formation or glycosylation may follow before the proteins undergo quality control then export to other sites such as the Golgi. In contrast to the function of the rough ER, the smooth ER is important in the synthesis of membrane lipids or their precursors i.e. for glycerol phospholipids, ceramide and cholesterol. Additionally, the smooth ER is involved in the metabolism of lipids via the production of steroid hormones (from cholesterol) and lipid-soluble compounds through its resident enzymes.

CELL NUCLEUS AND GENE EXPRESSION

Describe the structure of the nucleus and of chromatin, and distinguish between different

types of RNA.

The nucleus is a sphere-shaped organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains the genetic material of the cell in the form of nucleic acids. It is responsible for controlling all activities of the cell. and contains a nuclear membrane, chromosomes, nucleolus and nucleoplasm. Chromatin is a material that is present within a chromosome. Chromatin contains DNA and proteins. The chromatin packs the DNA to form a compact structure inside the nucleus of the cell. It is a macromolecule found in eukaryotic cells.

The main difference among mRNA tRNA and rRNA is that mRNA carries the coding instructions of an amino acid sequence of a protein while tRNA carries specific amino acids to the ribosome to form the polypeptide chain, and rRNA is associated with proteins to form ribosomes. RNAs take part in the protein synthesis. There are three different types of RNAs present in a cell, namely- mRNA or messenger RNA, rRNA or ribosomal RNA and tRNA or transfer RNA. They are named according to the function they perform.

Explain how DNA directs the synthesis of RNA in genetic transcription.

Transcription begins with the opening and unwinding of a small portion of the DNA double helix to expose the bases on each DNA strand. One of the two strands of the DNA double helix then acts as a template for the synthesis of an RNA molecule.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION

Explain how RNA directs the synthesis of proteins in genetic translation.

The instructions in the messenger RNA are used by ribosomes to insert the correct amino acids in the correct sequence to form the protein coded for by that gene. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein. This step is called translation.

Describe how proteins may be modified after genetic translation, and the role of ubiquitin

and the proteasome in protein degradation. 

Post-translational modification can occur at any step in the "life cycle" of a protein. For example, many proteins are modified shortly after translation is completed to mediate proper protein folding or stability or to direct the nascent protein to distinct cellular compartments (e.g., nucleus, membrane).Ubiquitination addition of ubiquitin on the protein which is majorly to tag protein for degradation. Proteasomes are protein complexes which degrade unneeded or damaged proteins by proteolysis, a chemical reaction that breaks peptide bonds. Enzymes that help such reactions are called proteases.

DNA SYNTHESIS AND CELL DIVISION

 9.    Explain the semiconservative replication of DNA in DNA synthesis.

According to the semiconservative replication model, which is illustrated in Figure 1, the two original DNA strands (i.e., the two complementary halves of the double helix) separate during replication; each strand then serves as a template for a new DNA strand, which means that each newly synthesized double helix is a combination of one old (or original) and one new DNA strand. Conceptually, semiconservative replication made sense in light of the double helix structural model of DNA, in particular its complementary nature and the fact that adenine always pairs with thymine and cytosine always pairs with guanine. Looking at this model, it is easy to imagine that during replication, each strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new strand, with complementary bases being added in the order indicated.

10.  Describe the cell cycle and identify so factors that affect it, and explain the significance

  of apoptosis.

Nutrients

The nutrients present in the cell affect cell division. Certain nutrients such as vitamins, minerals and antioxidants are able to neutralize some chemicals in the body that cause cells to mutate and divide. Healthy nutrients obtained from consuming fruits and vegetables help to ensure that cells remain healthy and therefore cell division produces health cells. In the case of microorganisms, nutrients are absorbed from their surroundings.

Genetics

Genetic code regulates cell division. Whether a fetus growing in the womb, a child whose bones are growing or an elderly woman whose bones have begun to break down, the rate and frequency at which cell division occurs is regulated by genetic code. Some people's genetic code causes more cell division than others. For example, one person who grows to be seven feet in height will have more cell division during the growth phase than someone who stops growing at five feet.

Chemicals

Exposure to toxic chemicals such as pesticides and some cleaning chemicals can cause cell mutation. When cells mutate and then divide the results are multiple mutated and damaged cells. Mutated cells are the cause of illness and disease. Fortunately there are treatments to kill off cells that were damaged or mutated during cell division.

Stress

Stress affects cell division. Research shows that extreme stress levels can actually damage cells in the human body. If these cells are damaged yet still undergo cell division, the new cells will also be damaged. This can cause cancer and other diseases.

Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death, or “cellular suicide.” It is different from necrosis, in which cells die due to injury. Apoptosis is an orderly process in which the cell’s contents are packaged into small packets of membrane for “garbage collection” by immune cells. Apoptosis removes cells during development, eliminates potentially cancerous and virus-infected cells, and maintains balance in the body. Apoptosis removes cells during development. It also eliminates pre-cancerous and virus-infected cells, although “successful” cancer cells manage to escape apoptosis so they can continue dividing. Apoptosis maintains the balance of cells in the human body and is particularly important in the immune system.

11.   Identify the phases of mitosis and meiosis, and distinguish between them.

Mitosis involves the division of body cells, while meiosis involves the division of sex cells. The division of a cell occurs once in mitosis but twice in meiosis. Two daughter cells are produced after mitosis and cytoplasmic division, while four daughter cells are produced after meiosis.

[landrei9]

E-PORTFOLIO IN PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (PY48) MRS. ABIGAIL INTERNO (COURSE PROFESSOR) LAIRA ANDREI S. OSIAS (STUDENT)

PRELIM ASSIGNMENT #2

PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

NAME: OSIAS, LAIRA ANDREI S.

SUBJ CODE: PY48

UNIT 1 TOPIC:

The study of body functions 

Chemical Composition of the Body

Cell Structure and Genetic Control

Enzymes & Energy

Cell respiration & metabolism

Interactions between cells & the extracellular environment

GUIDE QUESTIONS:

Describe the structure of an atom and ion and the nature of covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds.Covalent bond: bond in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms. Ionic bond: bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attached to another atom, resulting in positive and negative ions which attract each other. Other types of bonds include metallic bonds and hydrogen bonding.

Explain the meaning of the terms polar and nonpolar; hydrophilic and hydrophobic.

Hydrophobic literally means “the fear of water”. Hydrophobic molecules and surfaces repel water. Hydrophobic liquids, such as oil, will separate from water. Hydrophobic molecules are usually nonpolar, meaning the atoms that make the molecule do not produce a static electric field. In polar molecules these opposite regions of electrical energy attract to water molecules. Without opposite electrical charges on the molecules, water cannot form hydrogen bonds with the molecules. The water molecules then form more hydrogen bonds with themselves and the nonpolar molecules clump together.

The hydrophobic effect is caused by nonpolar molecules clumping together. Large macromolecules can have hydrophobic sections, which will fold the molecule so they can be close to each other, away from water. Many amino acids in proteins are hydrophobic, helping the proteins obtain their complicated shapes. The hydrophobic effect extends to organisms, as many hydrophobic molecules on the surface of an organisms help them regulate the amount of water and nutrients in their systems.

A hydrophilic molecule or substance is attracted to water. Water is a polar molecule that acts as a solvent, dissolving other polar and hydrophilic substances. In biology, many substances are hydrophilic, which allows them to be dispersed throughout a cell or organism. All cells use water as a solvent that creates the solution known as cytosol. Cytosol contains many substances, most of which are hydrophilic on at least part of the molecule. This ensures that that can be transported about the cell easily. Substances that are hydrophobic, or repel water, are often transported through and between cells with hydrophilic proteins or structures attached to aid in their dispersal.

Hydrophilic substances diffuse in water, which is to say they move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. This is caused by the attraction of water molecules to the hydrophilic molecules. In areas of high concentration of the molecules, water moves in and pulls the molecules apart. The molecules are then distributed to areas of low concentration, where more water molecules can interact. Diffusion is a very important property of most hydrophilic substances to living organisms. Diffusion allows them to distribute substances with little to no energy on their part.

Define acid and base and explain the pH scale.

 pH is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. The range goes from 0 - 14, with 7 being neutral. pHs of less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base. pH is really a measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the water.

Identify the characteristics of organic molecules.

They all contain carbon.

Most of them are flammable.

They are all soluble in non-polar solvents.

They are most, if not all, are covalently bonded molecules.

Identify the different types of carbohydrates and lipids, and give examples of each type.

CARBOHYDRATES

 Sugars. They are also called simple carbohydrates because they are in the most basic form. They can be added to foods, such as the sugar in candy, desserts, processed foods, and regular soda. They also include the kinds of sugar that are found naturally in fruits, vegetables, and milk.

Starches. They are complex carbohydrates, which are made of lots of simple sugars strung         together. Your body needs to break starches down into sugars to use them for energy. Starches include bread, cereal, and pasta. They also include certain vegetables, like potatoes, peas, and corn.

Fiber. It is also a complex carbohydrate. Your body cannot break down most fibers, so eating foods with fiber can help you feel full and make you less likely to overeat. Diets high in fiber have other health benefits. They may help prevent stomach or intestinal problems, such as constipation. They may also help lower cholesterol and blood sugar. Fiber is found in many foods that come from plants, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, beans, and whole grains.

LIPIDS

Triglycerides make up more than 95 percent of lipids in the diet and are commonly found in fried foods, butter, milk, cheese, and some meats. Naturally occurring triacylglycerols are found in many foods, including avocados, olives, corn, and nuts. We commonly call the triglycerides in our food “fats” and “oils.” Fats are lipids that are solid at room temperature, whereas oils are liquid.

Phospholipids make up only about 2 percent of dietary lipids. They are water-soluble and are found in both plants and animals. Phospholipids are crucial for building the protective barrier, or membrane, around your body’s cells. In fact, phospholipids are synthesized in the body to form cell and organelle membranes. In blood and body fluids, phospholipids form structures in which fat is enclosed and transported throughout the bloodstream.

Sterols are the least common type of lipid. Cholesterol is perhaps the best well-known sterol. Though cholesterol has a notorious reputation, the body gets only a small amount of its cholesterol through food—the body produces most of it. Cholesterol is an important component of the cell membrane and is required to synthesize sex hormones, vitamin D, and bile salts.

Explain how dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions occur in carbohydrates and triglycerides.

Large biological molecules often assemble via dehydration synthesis reactions, in which one monomer forms a covalent bond to another monomer (or growing chain of monomers), releasing a water molecule in the process. You can remember what happens by the name of the reaction: dehydration, for the loss of the water molecule, and synthesis, for the formation of a new bond.

Dehydration synthesis is the creation of larger molecules from smaller monomers where a water molecule is released. This can be used in the creation of synthetic polymers such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), or the creation of large biological molecules such as carbohydrate polymers and triglycerides.These carbohydrate polymers and triglycerides are important sources of energy, and in the case of carbohydrate polymers such as cellulose the energy is made available to humans through its fermentation by the gut bacteria rather than a human enzymes. The formation of triglycerides by dehydration synthesis could potentially be a target for the treatment of obesity. One important dehydration synthesis reaction which occurs in the cell is the formation of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation, which provides energy for the cells.

Describe the nature of phospholipids and prostaglandins.

Phospholipids are lipids that generally consisting of three components: a diglyceride, a phosphate group and another organic molecule for instances choline to create phosphatidylcholine. Phospholipids are a major component of all cellular membranes and can form bilayers.

The prostaglandins are made up of unsaturated fatty acids that contain a cyclopentane (5-carbon) ring and are derived from the 20-carbon, straight-chain, polyunsaturated fatty acid precursor arachidonic acid.

Describe amino acids and explain how peptide bonds between them are formed and broken.

As depicted in the figure given below, two amino acids bond together to form a peptide bond by the dehydration synthesis. During the reaction, one of the amino acids gives a carboxyl group to the reaction and loses a hydroxyl group (hydrogen and oxygen). The other amino acid loses hydrogen from the NH2 group.

Describe the different orders of protein structure, the different functions of proteins, and how protein structure grants specificity of function.

Protein function is directly related to the structure of that protein. A protein's specific shape determines its function. If the three-dimensional structure of the protein is altered because of a change in the structure of the amino acids, the protein becomes denatured and does not perform its function as expected.

Describe the structure of nucleotides and distinguish between the structure of DNA and RNA

DNA is a double-stranded molecule consisting of a long chain of nucleotides. A-form helix. RNA usually is a single-strand helix consisting of shorter chains of nucleotides. DNA is self-replicating.

Explain the law of complementary base pairing, and describe how that occurs between the two strands of DNA.

Chargaff's rule, also known as the complementary base pairing rule, states that DNA base pairs are always adenine with thymine (A-T) and cytosine with guanine (C-G). A purine always pairs with a pyrimidine and vice versa. However, A doesn't pair with C, despite that being a purine and a pyrimidine

[landrei9]

E-PORTFOLIO IN PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (PY48) MRS. ABIGAIL INTERNO (COURSE PROFESSOR) LAIRA ANDREI S. OSIAS (STUDENT)

PRELIM ASSIGNMENT #1

PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

NAME: OSIAS, LAIRA ANDREI S.

SUBJ CODE: PY48

Define homeostasis and describe how this concept can be used to explain physiological control mechanisms.

Homeostasis is the dynamic constancy of the internal environment, the maintenance of which is the principal function of physiological regulatory mechanisms. The concept of homeostasis provides a framework for understanding most physiological processes.

Define negative feedback and explain how it contributes to homeostasis. Illustrate this concept by drawing and labeling a negative feedback loop.

Negative feedback is a response mechanism that serves to maintain a state of internal constancy, or homeostasis. Effectors are activated by changes in the internal environment, and the inhibitory actions of the effectors serve to counteract these changes and maintain a state of balance.

Describe positive feedback and explain how this process functions in the body. 

Positive feedback is a response mechanism that results in the amplification of an initial change. Positive feedback results in avalache-like effects, as occur in the formation of a blood clot or in the production of the LH surge by the stimulatory effect of estrogen.

Explain how the secretion of a hormone is controlled by negative feedback inhibition. Use the control of insulin secretion as an example.

The secretion of a hormone can be inhibited by its own effects in a negative feedback manner. For example, insulin produces a lowering of blood glucose and because a rise in blood glucose stimulates insulin secretion, a lowering of blood glucose caused by insulin's action inhibits further insulin secretion.

List the four primary tissues and describe the distinguishing features of each type.

Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction.

Nervous tissue is specialized for the generation and conduction of electrical events.

Epithelial tissue is specialized for forming membranes and galnds.

Connective tissue is characterized by large amounts of extracellular material between the different types of connective tissue cells.

Compare and contrast the three types of muscle tissue.

Skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle both are striated muscles.

Cardiac muscle and smooth muscle are both involuntary muscles.

Smooth muscle is nonstriated.

Skeletal muscle is voluntary.

Cardiac muscle has intercalated discs.

Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle do not.

Skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle are multinucleated.

Smooth muscle only has one centrally located nucleus.

Most skeletal muscles are attached to bone, only three are not.

Cardiac muscle is only in the heart. Smooth muscle is in the digestive tract, blood vessels, bronchioles, and in the ducts of the urinary and reproductive systems.

Describe the different types of epithelial membranes and state their locations in the body.

Simple membranes are a single layer of cells that are specialized for transport of substances between the internal and external environments. Simple membranes cover visceral organs and line body cavities, tubes, and ducts.

Stratified membranes are specialized to provide protection. Stratified membranes are located in the epidermal layer of the skin and linings of body openings, ducts, and urinary bladder.

Explain why exocrine and endocrine glands are considered epithelial tissues and

distinguish between these two types of glands.

Exocrine and endocrine glands are considered epithelial tissues because the glands are derived from cells of epithelial membranes.

An exocrine gland is a gland that discharges its secretion through a duct to the outside of an epithelial membrane, and an endocrine gland is a gland that secretes hormones into the circulation rather than into a duct; also called ductless glands.

Describe the different types of connective tissues and explain how they differ from one

another in their content of extracellular material.

Loose connective tissue has protein fibers composed of collagen scattered loosely in a ground substance which provides space for the presence of blood vessels, nerve fibers, and other structures.

Adipose tissue and blood are specialized types of loose connective tissue.

Dense regular connective tissues are those in which collagenous fibers are oriented parallel to each other and densely packed in the extracellular matrix, leaving little room for cells and ground substance. Examples are tendons and ligaments.

Dense irregular connective tissue form tough capsules and sheaths around organs, contain densely packed collagenous fibers arranged in various orientations that resist forces applied from different directions. Examples are bone and dentin.

State the location of each type of primary tissue in the skin.

Epithelial tissue creates protective boundaries and is involved in the diffusion of ions and molecules.

Connective tissue underlies and supports other tissue types.

Muscle tissue contracts to initiate movement in the body.

Nervous tissue transmits and integrates information through the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Describe the functions of nervous, muscle, and connective tissue in the skin.

Several tissue types are supported and underpinned by connective tissue. Muscle tissue contracts to cause the body to move. The central and peripheral nervous systems use nerve tissue to transfer and integrate information.

Describe the functions of the epidermis and explain why this tissue is called “dynamic.”

The epidermis is a dynamic structure acting as a semi-permeable barrier with a layer of flat anuclear cells at the surface (stratum corneum). The epidermis has a complex structure designed to protect from the environment. It has an undulating surface with cross-crossing ridges and valleys, with invaginations due to follicles and sweat duct ostia. Epidermis is thickest on palms and soles, and thinnest on eyelid and scrotum.

Distinguish between the intracellular and extracellular compartments and explain their

significance.The intracellular fluid is the fluid contained within cells. The extracellular fluid—the fluid outside the cells—is divided into that found within the blood and that found outside the blood; the latter fluid is known as the interstitial fluid. These fluids are not simply water but contain varying amounts of solutes (electrolytes and other bioactive molecules). An electrolyte (sodium chloride, for example) is defined as any molecule that in solution separates into its ionic components and is capable of conducting an electric current. Cations are electrolytes that migrate toward the negative pole of an electric field; anions migrate toward the positive pole.