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bibliography

Lion zookeeper, Julie. (2017, April 19). Lion talk [Interview]. Toronto, Ontario: Toronto Zoo.

Cheetah zookeeper, Kasia. (2017, April 19). Cheetah talk [Interview]. Toronto, Ontario: Toronto Zoo.

Bradford, A. (2014, October 02). Lions: Facts & Information. Retrieved April 26, 2017, from http://www.livescience.com/27404-lion-facts.html

San Diego Zoo. (n.d.). Lion. Retrieved April 26, 2017, from http://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/lion

Photograph by Matthieu Paley, National Geographic Creative. (2017, April 23). Domestic Cat. Retrieved April 26, 2017, from http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/d/domestic-cat/

Photograph by Joel Sartore, National Geographic Photo Ark. (2017, April 13). African Lion. Retrieved April 26, 2017, from http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/a/african-lion/

Photograph by Joel Sartore, National Geographic Photo Ark. (2017, April 23). Cheetah. Retrieved April 26, 2017, from http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/c/cheetah/

Ashe, D. (2016, October 21). We've Taken A Major Step Forward For Lion Conservation In Africa. Retrieved April 26, 2017, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/a-major-step-forward-for-lion-conservation-in-africa_us_5808f6ffe4b099c434319294

Photograph by Joel Sartore, National Geographic Photo Ark. (2017, April 27). Leopard. Retrieved April 27, 2017, from http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/l/leopard/

Felidae. (2011, June 7). Retrieved April 27, 2017, from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Felidae

Basic Facts About Leopards. (2016, September 19). Retrieved April 27, 2017, from http://www.defenders.org/leopard/basic-facts

Leopard. (n.d.). Retrieved April 27, 2017, from http://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/leopard

Fox, M. W. (2015, July 15). Domestic cat. Retrieved April 27, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/cat

Best, J. T. (2017, March 15). Tree leopard [Photograph]. Selinda, Selinda Africa.

All images were taken by Krista Milliste at the Toronto zoo unless otherwise stated in the caption.

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THE FELIDAE FAMILY

‘Felidae’ is the taxonomic family that all cats belong to. It includes: jaguars, leopards, lions, tigers, and even common house cats. Felidae are carnivores and have few natural predators, still, many species in this family are listed under the endangered species list. Felidae do have one predator: humans, and for various reasons. From encroaching on their habitat, to trophy hunting, and illegal pet trafficking; Leopards, cheetahs, lions, and more are decreasing in population and may be on their way to extinction.

Although each species is uniquely adapted to their environment and the niche they fill, they also have many similarities that allow them to be in the same taxonomic family. For example: all Felidae are mammals, carnivorous, and have similar homologous structures such as their paws, skull shapes, tails, and teeth. They are classified by their size, living habits, and unique adaptations (more on the adaptations of cheetahs, leopards, and lions in their given posts)

Most Felidae are solitary animals, where males and females only come together approximately once a year to mate. Most have retractable claws and walk on their toes. Cats have strong back legs to help them pounce on prey and spring swiftly into action. They have long tails and whiskers for balance as well as impressive sight and hearing. Most Felidae are nocturnal and have large eye lenses to help absorb as much light as possible to easily see in the dark. 

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LOSS OF HABITAT AND BIODIVERSITY

Loss of habitat for all species results in increased isolation and inbreeding. The more a species inbreeds, the more their population’s genetic sequence will be similar. The closer animals are related to one another, the more genetic similarities they share. This also means that the less biodiversity exists within their population. Biodiversity is important because it allows a population to survive through various illnesses, infections, and natural disasters. Biodiversity is also what allows for evolution and adaptation to an environment. 

Examples of illness with and without biodiversity: A deadly virus contaminates the watering hole for a pride of lions. Although all lions drink the same water, only a portion of them die. This is because some of the lions in the pride had traits that protected them from the virus. The offspring of the surviving lions also had the genetic trait that allowed them to drink the contaminated water without any reaction and therefore their population was able to continue surviving in that location. In contrast, if there were no biodiversity within that pride of lions, all of the lions would have died due to the contaminated water and their population would have disappeared. 

Without biodiversity, there would be no variation within a population to allow for the evolution of new species. This would mean that multicellular species would not exist. 

In the African savannah, there are cheetahs and lions. Cheetahs are very fast but also much smaller than lions and hunt alone rather than in packs. Cheetahs have to hide their hunts to try and protect it from thieving lions. If lions didn't occasionally steal a cheetahs hunt, cheetahs would have more resources to use for repopulation and may overpopulate(for this scenario it is important to not include human impact on the cheetah population). Overpopulation of cheetahs would cause a decrease in population of smaller herbivores such as impalas, rabbits, warthogs, and gazelles. A decrease in these populations may also decrease the population of other predators that hunt them or an increase in the population of the plants they eat. Either way, the ecosystem would lose its equilibrium if Felidae biodiversity were to suddenly change. 

In many cases, humans are the main cause for decreased population among Felidae species. Although global governments are beginning to put more preventative measures and laws in place to protect many of the species in danger, populations continue to decline because of the damage already done. Cheetahs, however, are somewhat of a special case because of their experience with the bottleneck effect, human interaction in diversifying their breeding with one another is beneficial to the future of the species.

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A cheetah at the Toronto zoo waits to be fed. The ‘tear marks’ down her face are a distinguishing feature about her.

MORE ABOUT CHEETAHS

Cheetahs also have other useful adaptions that are unrelated to their almost unbelievable speed. One such adaption includes their black ‘tear marks’ that run from their inner eye down their face, as shown in the photo above. Because cheetahs are solitary creatures, they have adapted to hunt during the heat of the day, while most other large predators are resting. Midday is when the sun shines brightest and the black markings on a cheetah’s face help reduce glare so that they can better find and watch their prey.

A cheetah’s spots are also very important as they allow them to camouflage into the tall grass

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A male lion shows off his mane, and dominance at the Toronto zoo by being the only member of his pride that is fed at 1:30 pm.

LIONS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

African lions ( Panthera leo ) are the largest of African cats and the second largest Felidae species in the world. They weigh between 400-450lbs for an average male and 250-350lbs for an average female. They are also the only species of Felidae that demonstrate sexual dimorphism which means that it is easy to differentiate between males and females of the species. Males have large manes of fur surrounding their heads while females do not. In most other Felidae species, differences between sexes are minimal such as slight head shape and size differences.

Lion manes serve several purposes: Firstly, manes allow male lions to appear more impressive to females. The darker the mane of the male, the more testosterone he has and therefore the more attractive he will be. More testosterone also indicates that the lion will be more dominant in his pride. (see ‘social animals’ for more information about lion prides)

The mane is also used to make male lions appear more intimidating to other males who may wish to overthrow them in their pride. While fighting, lions will automatically go for the neck, the ‘kill shot’, but with a mane, the lion being attacked is protected as the attacker will get a big mouthful of hair and not flesh. Being as male lions are the primary defendants of their prides, this is a useful adaptation for protection. 

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A leopard in Africa relaxes on a high tree branch away from other predators during the heat of the day. ( Best, J. T.)

LEOPARDS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

The leopard (Panthera pardus), is also one of the smaller big cats, however, they are larger than Cheetahs and can weigh up to 140lbs. There are 9 subspecies of leopards that range from Africa, to India, to south Asia. African leopards(Panthera pardus pardus), the ones focused on in this blog, are the only subspecies of leopard not found outside of Africa. Leopards are especially good climbers (example above) and often take their hunt up into trees to protect it from scavengers. 

Like cheetahs, leopards have spotted coats. However, unlike cheetahs, their spots are not solid black, and look more like little rosettes. A black perimeter almost entirely surrounds a darker brown interior. The coat of a leopard is useful to help them camouflage in the trees and stay hidden from their prey before they pounce. (similar to the moth gizmo done in class, leopards adapted their camouflage coat to suit their environment.)

Similar to both lions and cheetahs, A leopard’s main predator is humans. This is because of trophy hunting, agricultural conflict, and urbanisation that results in loss of habitat.

According to the African Wildlife Foundation, there is a lot of effort in protecting the African leopards. Preventative measures are being put in place to protect livestock from leopard attacks. Protecting livestock from leopards protects leopards from farmers.

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Female cheetah at the Toronto zoo bends over to pick up a morsel of meat. Notice how she bends her front legs.

WHAT MAKES CHEETAHS FAST

Cheetahs ( Acinonyx jubatus ) are built for speed. They are some of the smallest cats in the ‘big cat family’ weighing in at an average of 77-143lbs. Cheetahs are also well known as the fastest mammals on earth. They can reach speeds as fast as 72kmph in only 2.5 seconds and can reach maximum speeds as fast as 112kmph.

Cheetahs have very large nostrils. They allow the cheetah to maximise oxygen intake which they need to be able to reach and maintain their speed during hunting. They also have larger proportional lungs than other Felidae to accommodate the higher oxygen inhalation and requirements.

Other proportions in cheetahs also help improve their speed. Cheetahs have a longer tail to spine ratio than other cat species. This proves an effective adaption as the cheetah uses their tail to help steer their direction while running at high speeds. In all cats, the tail is an important asset for balance, but in cheetahs, it is extremely important and helpful when hunting prey. Cheetahs also have the most flexible spines of other cat species which again helps them make sharp corners and take longer strides. 

You may have noticed that your cat at home tucks their paws in while they lay down. Cheetahs can’t do that. This is because they have straight tendons and single jointed limbs for running. Their shoulder bones are not connected to their collar bones which give more flexibility and range of motion to increase stride length.( This is shown in the picture above as the cheetah bends down to pick up a piece of meat, her shoulders are pushed back straight, much more than when other members of the Felidae family are in the same position. Here, we can see her increased range of motion due to shoulder blades that are not connected to her collar bone. ) 

A cheetah’s legs are also comprised of special fast twitch muscles to allow for faster, stronger motion, and therefore allowing them to run at their almost unbelievable speed. 

Finally, cheetahs even have unique adaptions in their feet. their paw pads are less rounded than those of other Felidae species and they are rougher, allowing for increased traction as they run. Their claws are semi-retractable (unlike all other Felidae species who have fully retractable claws) and act as increased grip while running at top speed. similar to track spikes worn by sprinters during a race.

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A small pride of lions (two females and one male) sit together in the sun at the Toronto zoo, waiting to be fed.

SOCIAL ANIMALS

Lions are the only species of the Felidae family that live in social groups. these groups are called prides. African lion prides often consist of one to three males and anywhere from one to twenty-five females, as well as all their young. All females in a pride are related as they tend to stay in their birth pride after maturity. In contrast, when male cubs reach maturity, after about two years, they leave their prides and often either start a new one or take over the pride of another male.

Both sexes in the pride have their own specialised tasks. Females are the primary hunters, while the males are the defenders from other lion prides, hyenas, and wild dogs. Females hunt in groups which proves useful for several reasons. One advantage being that many of the prey that lions hunt is much faster than them and with teamwork, they can take turns and more easily catch their next meal. There are two rolls a lioness can play in the hunt. Smaller lionesses who are faster and agiler, will chase the prey into a hunting circle where the larger lionesses of the group ambush the prey and either suffocate, choke, or break the neck of their prey with their large, strong jaws. While other Felidae species such as cheetahs may use their speed to catch food, lions use their strength.

Male lions have their own jobs. One of which is marking their pride’s territory. They do this by urinating on trees and rocks, rubbing their muzzle on grass and in bushes, and scratching the ground with their paws. They also guard their territory and protect their pride. Often, another male will intrude into their territory and try to take over a dominant male’s pride. To do so, he must fight all the existing males in the pride and either succeed or fail. This is where the mane of a male lion comes in handy, for protection. (see ‘lions and sexual dimorphism’ for more information about lion manes) Male lions also care for their cubs while the females are out hunting.

Cubs born within a pride are much more likely to survive and be able to hunt than those born outside of a pride (nomads). Lions are such social creatures that sometimes, a group of nomad male lions will live and hunt together for several years because alone, they would be much less likely to survive.

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The above picture shows a white lion. these lions have a recessive gene that affects pigmentation. Because they are rarer than their darker coloured counterparts, they are even more susceptible to trophy hunting and poaching. 

CONSERVATION AND HUMAN IMPACT

Over the past hundred years, lions have been hunted and killed for many reasons. From Farmers protecting their livestock to poachers participating in trophy hunting. Once, lions lived all around Africa as well as the middle east to India. Now, very few Asian lions are still alive (estimated only 400-460) and African lion population is also limited.

All natural habitat where lions live today is comprised of nature reserves. In most countries, lion hunting is illegal, however in some, it is not, and trophy hunting is still relatively common. Even the hunt of other species can have an impact on lion population. Hunting animals that lions depend on for food, and depleting their population is leaving less for the lions to eat and overall increasing their mortality rate. 

One reason lions are losing their natural habitat is due to agricultural growth. Not only does agriculture take up space in the lion’s habitats, but farmers have also taken to killing lions who are threatening and eating their livestock. This is a major problem concerning lion conservation. 

In the past couple of decades, African lion population has decreased by almost 50%. Therefore, African lions are listed as ‘Vulnerable’ under the list of endangered global species.

Lately, more and more laws have been put in place and enforced in order to help protect the population of African lions still alive in the world. Protection under the Endangered Species Act allows for more enforced regulation of lion trophy and related imports. Recently, the USA has entirely banned the import of lion trophies which will decrease the market and therefore, hopefully, decrease the number of lions killed as trophies. 

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The above picture shows the cheetah habitat at the Toronto zoo and its emptiness represents the lack of cheetahs in the world.

BIODIVERSITY AND HUMAN IMPACT

1200 years ago, cheetahs were one of many mammal species to experience a mass extinction. This phenomenon caused the global cheetah population to dramatically decrease, although, luckily, not vanish. When a population is decreased, its genetic diversity is also decreased. Therefore, the population is more vulnerable to further decreasing due to lack of individual resistances against various illnesses or diseases. After the cheetah’s severe population decrease, the few remaining cats were fortunate to repopulate and eventually regrow their population, however, the genetic diversity was still lacking. This event is called the bottleneck effect. 

The bottleneck effect also has other unfortunate consequences. If one of the original surviving cheetahs had an unfavourable mutation, all their offspring will also have that unfavourable mutation as will the generation after that. As all cheetahs are technically related, and inbreeding is a common occurrence in the cheetah population, genetic traits are even more spread and shared and genetic diversity continues to decrease. 

Lack of genetic diversity isn't the only thing preventing cheetahs from thriving, humans are also a large part of the problem. Similar to lions and other Felidae species, cheetahs need a vast territory with enough resources such as food, water, and shelter, to survive. Human development in and around these territories is destroying them and decreasing the number of animals they can effectively maintain. Wildlife reserves are not an option for cheetahs as they will also contain a larger population of other big predators such as lions, hyenas, and wild dogs. Because cheetahs are solitary animals, and these other predators hunt in packs, cheetahs have a much lower chance of obtaining their required resources and also a much lower chance of survival. 

Finally, cheetahs are also caught up in the illegal pet trade. Cheetahs are wild animals and although the cubs are cute, they do not make good pets. Only one in six cheetahs is said to survive transportation from the wild to captivity. Therefore, illegal pet trade can make much more of an impact on the cheetah population than the demand that exists or these ‘exotic pets’.