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Wheel Line Irrigation

Wheel line irrigation system is a method of crop irrigation consisting of series of pipes, each with a wheel permanently affixed to its midpoint, and sprinklers along its length, are coupled together. Water is supplied at one end using a large hose. After sufficient irrigation has been applied to one strip of the field, the hose is removed, the water drained from the system, and the assembly rolled either by hand or with a purpose-built mechanism, so that the sprinklers are moved to a different position across the field. The hose is reconnected. The process is repeated in a pattern until the whole field has been irrigated.

This system is less expensive to install, but much more labor-intensive to operate - it does not travel automatically across the field: it applies water in a stationary strip, must be drained, and then rolled to a new strip. Most systems use 4 or 5-inch (130 mm) diameter aluminum pipe. The pipe doubles both as water transport and as an axle for rotating all the wheels. A drive system (often found near the centre of the wheel line) rotates the clamped-together pipe sections as a single axle, rolling the whole wheel line. Manual adjustment of individual wheel positions may be necessary if the system becomes misaligned.

Wheel line irrigation typically uses less water compared to many surface irrigation and furrow irrigation techniques which reduces the expenditure of and conserves water. It also helps to reduce labor costs compared to some ground irrigation techniques, which are often more labor-intensive.The use of wheel line irrigation can reduce the amount of soil tillage that occurs and helps to reduce water runoff and soil erosion that can occur with ground irrigation. Less tillage encourages more organic materials and crop residue to decompose back into the soil, and reduces soil compaction.

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Center-Pivot Irrigation

Center-pivot irrigation (also known as circle irrigation) is a method of crop irrigation in which equipment rotates around a pivot and crops are watered with sprinklers. A circular area centered on the pivot is irrigated, often creating a circular pattern in crops when viewed from above. It was recognized as a method to improve water distribution to fields.

Center pivot irrigation is a form of overhead sprinkler irrigation consisting of several segments of pipe (usually galvanized steel or aluminum) joined together and supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length. The machine moves in a circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the circle.

Most center pivots were initially water-powered. These were replaced by hydraulic systems and electric motor-driven systems. Most systems today are driven by an electric motor mounted at each tower. The center-pivot irrigation system is considered to be a highly efficient system which helps conserve water.

For a center pivot to be used the terrain needs to be reasonably flat. But one major advantage of center pivots over alternative systems is the ability to function in undulating country. This advantage has resulted in increased irrigated acreage and water use in some areas. The system is in use, for example, in parts of the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil and also in desert areas such as the Sahara and the Middle East.

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Linear Move Irrigation

Linear move irrigation is a method of crop irrigation in which equipment can be configured to move in a straight line. In this case the water is supplied by an irrigation channel running the length of the field and positioned either at one side or midway across the field width. The motor and pump equipment is mounted on a cart adjacent to the supply channel that travels with the machine.

Farmers may opt for linear moves to conform to existing rectangular field designs such as those converting from furrow irrigation. Linear moves are far less common, rely on more complex guidance systems and require additional management compared to center pivot systems. Linear moves are common in Australia and typically range between 500 and 1,000 meters in length.

Linear move systems are one of the most efficient forms of farm irrigation, irrigating up to 98% of your field and can maximize crop production with limited resources. They also provide farm management program with chemigation, fertigation, germination and decreases leaching that can occur through other irrigation methods.

Linear move systems travel back and forth across your field, instead of around a central point as a center pivot does. The main advantage in linear move irrigation system is maximizing the irrigated area by reducing labor expenses by 50 percent. It also delivers low rates of water, helping to eliminate runoff when irrigating on certain soils

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Sprinkler Irrigation

Irrigation sprinklers are sprinklers providing (irrigation) to agriculture, crops, vegetation, or for recreation, as a cooling system, or for the control of airborne dust, landscaping and golf courses. The sprinkler system irrigates the field and thus it is widely used in sandy areas as it checks the wastage of water through seepage and evaporation.

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the ground. The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed to enable a uniform application of water.

A water timer is an electromechanical device which increases or decreases the water flow in a water line through the use of an embedded valve. It is used in conjunction with irrigation sprinklers to form an automated or non-automated sprinkler system, capable of administering precise amounts of water, at a regular basis.

Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving platforms connected to the water source by a hose. This type of system is known to most people as a "water reel" traveling irrigation sprinkler and they are used extensively for dust suppression, irrigation, and land application of waste water.

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Drip Irrigation

Drip irrigation is a form of irrigation that saves water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of many different plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. It is done through narrow tubes that deliver water directly to the base of the plant.

Drip irrigation is chosen instead of surface irrigation for various reasons, often including concern about minimizing evaporation. Drip irrigation is used in farms, commercial greenhouses, and residential gardeners. Drip irrigation is adopted extensively in areas of acute water scarcity and especially for crops and trees.

Properly designed, installed and managed drip irrigation may help achieve water conservation by reducing evaporation and deep drainage when compared to other types of irrigation since water can be more precisely applied to the plant roots. In addition, drip can eliminate many diseases that are spread through water contact with the foliage.

Finally, in regions where water supplies are severely limited, there may be no actual water savings, but rather simply an increase in production while using the same amount of water as before. In very arid regions or on sandy soils, the preferred method is to apply the irrigation water as slowly as possible.

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Reclaimed Water

Waste water treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater (sewage) and reused for various domestic and industrial purposes. The treated waste water is potable, but mainly used in agriculture and industries.

Reclaimed water or recycled water is treated wastewater that has been purified using dual-membrane (via micro-filtration and reverse osmosis) and ultraviolet technologies, in addition to conventional water treatment processes.

Desalination is an artificial process that removes minerals from saline water (generally sea water) to produce water suitable for human consumption or irrigation. One by-product of desalination is salt. The prominent methods of desalination are thermal, electrical and pressure.

Along with recycled wastewater, desalination is one of the few rainfall-independent water sources. Most of the modern interest in recycling water and desalination is focused on environmental friendly and cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use.

Sustainable development of wastewater treatment and desalination technologies in future will reduce disadvantages like high costs of power usage, water treatment, infrastructure construction, transportation, and waste disposal problems.

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Artificial Groundwater Recharge

Artificial groundwater recharge is the planned, human activity of augmenting the amount of groundwater available through works designed to increase the natural replenishment or percolation of surface waters into the groundwater aquifers, resulting in a corresponding increase in the amount of groundwater available for abstraction.

Artificial groundwater recharge can maintain groundwater levels in situations where natural recharge has become severely reduced. Although the primary objective of this technology is to preserve or enhance groundwater resources, artificial recharge has been used for many other beneficial purposes.

Some of these purposes include conservation or disposal of floodwaters, control of saltwater intrusion, storage of water to reduce pumping and piping costs, temporary regulation of groundwater abstraction, and water quality improvement by removal of suspended solids by filtration through the ground or by dilution by mixing with naturally-occurring ground waters.

Direct surface recharge techniques are among the simplest and most widely applied methods. In this method, water moves from the land surface to the aquifer by means of percolation through the soil.

Direct subsurface recharge methods access deeper aquifers and require less land than the direct surface recharge methods, but are more expensive to construct and maintain. Recharge wells, commonly called injection wells, are generally used to replenish groundwater when aquifers are deep and separated from the land surface by materials of low permeability.

Combinations of several direct surface and subsurface recharge methods such as collectors with wells, basins with pits, shafts, and wells can be used in conjunction with one another to meet specific recharge needs.

Indirect methods of artificial recharge include the installation of groundwater pumping facilities or infiltration galleries near hydraulically-connected surface water bodies (such as streams or lakes) to lower groundwater levels and induce infiltration elsewhere in the drainage basin, and modification of aquifers or construction of new aquifers to enhance or create groundwater reserve.

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Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is a technique of collection and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than allowing it to run off. The rainwater collected is either stored in tanks or redirected to a deep pit, well, borehole, etc. Rainwater can also be collected from dew or fog with nets or other tools. The harvested water is mainly used for agricultural and domestic purposes and also for groundwater recharge.

Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during regional water restrictions and in developed countries is often used to supplement the main supply. It provides water when there is a drought, can help mitigate flooding of low-lying areas, and reduces demand on wells which may enable groundwater levels to be sustained.

Application of rainwater harvesting in urban water system provides a substantial benefit for both water supply and wastewater subsystems by reducing the need for clean water in water distribution system, less generated storm water in sewer system, as well as a reduction in storm water runoff polluting freshwater bodies.

Rainwater harvesting is possible by growing fresh water flooded forests without losing the income from the used /submerged land. The main purpose of the rainwater harvesting is to utilize the locally available rainwater to meet water requirements throughout the year without the need of huge capital expenditure. This would facilitate the availability of uncontaminated water for domestic, industrial and irrigation needs.

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Atmospheric Water Generator

An atmospheric water generator (AWG) is a device that extracts water from humid ambient air. Unlike a dehumidifier, an AWG is designed to render the water potable from air. AWGs are useful where pure drinking water is difficult or impossible to obtain, because there is almost always a small amount of water in the air that can be extracted.

An atmospheric water generator machine will extract potable water from the humidity in air using refrigeration or a desiccant. Condensing moisture by refrigeration requires a minimum ambient temperature of about 10-15°C (50-60˚F), while the desiccant absorbents have no such restriction.

Either method is suitable for a desert climate, where water production is dependent on ambient humidity. The Negev desert in Israel has a significant average relative humidity of 64% whereas the Sahara Desert has an average relative humidity of 30%. Moreover, the effect of the dew point causes early mornings to have higher humidity, so that atmospheric water generation is possible even in the harshest climates.

These AWGs can perform better water production in more humid conditions. The extraction of atmospheric water may not be free of cost, because significant input of energy is required to drive some AWG processes. Research has also developed new AWG technologies to produce useful yields of water at a reduced energy cost.

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Dew Condenser

Dew is a form of precipitation that occurs naturally when atmospheric water vapor condenses onto a substrate. Dew condensers are developed in the late 20th century on-wards which proved to be much more successful. A typical dew condenser has a condensing surface at an angle of 30° from the horizontal.

The condensing surface is backed by a thick layer of insulating material and supported 2–3m (7–10 ft) above ground level. The condensing surface should be made of a light material (so it can’t hold onto heat) and hydrophobic (water repelling) so that the condensed moisture drips down easily and collected.

Dew condensers are generally made from sheets of polyethylene or polystyrene foam. These condensation materials are inspired by the Namibia Desert beetle, which survives only on the moisture it extracts from the atmosphere. It has been found that its back is coated with microscopic projections: the peaks are hydrophilic and the troughs are hydrophobic.

Such condensers may be conveniently installed on the ridge roofs of low buildings or supported by a simple frame. Although other heights do not typically work quite so well, it may be less expensive or more convenient to mount a collector near to ground level or on a two-story building.

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Fog Collector

A fog fence or fog collector is an apparatus for collecting liquid water from fog, using a fine mesh or array of parallel wires. The water droplets in the fog will deposit on the first mesh. A second mesh rubbing against the first causes the droplets to coalesce and run to the bottom of the meshes, where the water may be collected and led away.

These fog collectors require no external energy source to perform water collection other than naturally occurring temperature variations. This makes it attractive for deployment in less developed areas. An ideal location for fog fences is high arid areas such as mountain slopes or near cold offshore currents, where fog is common.

Fog contains typically from 0.05 to 0.5 grams of water per cubic meter, with droplets from 1 to 40 mm in diameter. It settles slowly and is carried by wind. Therefore, an efficient fog fence should contain a fine mesh and must be placed facing the prevailing winds.

Historical records indicate the use of water-collecting fog fences. The origins of fog fences are stretching back as far as the Inca Empire. The Incas were able to sustain their culture above the rain line by collecting dew and channeling it to cisterns for later distribution.

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Zero-Carbon City

A zero-carbon city has no carbon footprint and in this respect will not cause harm to the planet. This transition which includes renewable electricity and zero-emission transport is undertaken as a response to climate change.

Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impacts. To become a zero carbon city, an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease.

Instead of using established cities, many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city. This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free. Green buildings and public rapid transit systems will be used in zero carbon cities.

Zero carbon cities use only renewable energy which will reduce CO2 emissions. Transport vehicles will run on batteries or hydrogen-fuel cells creating a relatively quiet city. Other priorities include recycling wastes to reduce landfills and generate clean energy.

The waste water and rain water will be collected, treated and recycled within the city boundaries. The recycled water will be used to grow plants and trees in green spaces. This makes the whole water cycle much more efficient and improves greenery in the surrounding areas.

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Green City

A green city is a city striving to lessen their environmental impacts by reducing waste, expanding recycling, lowering emissions, increasing housing density while expanding open space, and encouraging the development of sustainable local businesses.

A green city is inhabited by people dedicated towards minimization of required inputs of energy, water and food. Each green city development has also set its own requirements to ensure their city is environmentally sustainable. These criteria range from zero-waste and zero-carbon emissions.

The infrastructure of a green city should constitute Eco-friendly houses and buildings including green spaces. These green spaces provide a unique method of reducing air pollution, promoting clean air and also improving levels of public health.

The main priority of a green city is to create the smallest possible ecological footprint and to produce the lowest quantity of pollution possible, to efficiently use land, compost used materials, recycle it or convert waste-to-energy and thus minimize the city's overall contribution to climate change.

A green city’s primary goal is to increase environmental education in hopes of achieving better citizen involvement and cooperation. By making the people more aware of how their individual behavior and daily activities affects the environment, a reduction in carbon emissions becomes more of a reality.

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Eco City

An Eco-city is a city built from the principles of living within environment means. The ultimate goal of many Eco-cities is to eliminate all carbon wastes and to merge the city harmoniously with the natural environment.

However, Eco-cities also have the intentions of stimulating economic growth using higher population densities and therefore obtaining higher efficiency by reducing poverty, improving the public health and standard of living.

The city design must be easy to modernize and evolve as the population grows. It should satisfy the needs of the population change when considering the infrastructure designs such as for water systems, power lines, etc.

One of the most noticeable economic impacts of the movement towards becoming an Eco-city is the notable increase in productivity across existing industries as well as the introduction of new industries, thus creating jobs.

The main priority of an Eco-city is to reduce its ecological footprint by reducing total carbon emissions, which economically speaking means increasing productivity. Merely increasing the rate of productivity in an industry reduces costs, both monetary and environmentally.

An industry will become more productive if it can more efficiently allocate its physical and human capital, reducing the time it takes to make the same amount of goods which also allows for a higher wage (because employees are doing more) and a lesser environmental impact (by using less energy and resources to produce the same amount).

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Restoration

Restoration is restoring a product, antique or work of art to a like-new condition or preserving an antique or work of art against further deterioration as in conservation. The main goal of restoration is to restore the original appearance or functionality of a piece or product as well as preserving them for future generations.

Restoration of an antique is often done in preparation for sale or upon the requirement of a collector. Restoration of valuable objects should always be left to professionals who are sensitive to all of the issues, ensuring that a piece retains or increases its value after restoration.

Restoration can be as simple as light cleaning such as remove disfiguring dirt or grime on the surface of a painting, or it may include near complete rebuilding or replacement such as engines might be rebuilt with new parts as necessary in old automobiles or holes in a silver pot might be patched.

There is a lot of difference between restoring and repairing. Functionality may be achieved by a repair, but restoring an item properly is an art-form. Finishes might be stripped and redone, but it is essential that the original patina is retained, if possible. Stripping is only done as a last resort, especially with antique furniture.

Restorers are often trained crafts-persons such as furniture makers, mechanics or metal-smiths. Some have years of experience in their fields, whereas others are self-taught or cobble together their skills from idiosyncratic backgrounds.

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Remanufacture

Remanufacturing is the rebuilding of a product to specifications of the original manufactured product using a combination of reused, repaired and new parts. It requires the repair or replacement of worn out or obsolete components and modules. Parts subject to degradation affecting the performance or the expected life of the whole are replaced.

Remanufacturing saves money and also improves the technology and reliability of a product. Remanufacturing is a form of a product recovery process that differs from other recovery processes in its completeness. A remanufactured machine should match the same customer expectation as new machines.

There are three types of remanufacturing activities, each with different operational challenges.

a) Remanufacturing without identity loss: In this method, a current machine is built on yesterday’s base, receiving all of the enhancements, expected life and warranty of a new machine. The physical structure (the chassis or frame) is inspected for soundness. The whole product is refurbished and critical modules are overhauled, upgraded or replaced. If there are defects in the original design, they are eliminated. This is the case for customized remanufacturing of machine tools, airplanes, computer mainframes, large medical equipment and other capital goods. Because of its uniqueness, this product recovery is characterized as a project.

b) Remanufacturing by recoating of worn engine parts: Many engine parts and components are large and expensive and after a period of use become worn. An example of such a part is the engine block, in particular the cylinder engine bores, which must withstand explosions during piston firing. Instead of disposing of large engine blocks, remanufacturing has resulted in re-use of the parts by coating them with (PTWA) plasma transferred wire arc spraying, resulting in a greener environment. Remanufacturing by recoating of parts is also very popular in the aircraft field, the geothermal pipe field and the automotive engine field.

c) Repetitive remanufacturing without identity loss: In this method, there is the additional challenge of scheduling the sequence of dependent processes and identifying the location of inventory buffers. There is a fine line between repetitive remanufacturing without loss of identity and product overhaul. Again, the critical difference is that remanufacturing is a complete process. The final output has a like-new appearance and is covered by a warranty comparable to that of a new product.

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Refill

Refill is the action or practice of filling new materials into a package or container again. Refill packaging is manufactured of durable materials and is specifically designed for multiple trips and extended life.

A refill package or container is designed for reuse without impairment of its protective function. At the beginning of refill process, the packages or containers undergoes thorough inspection and cleaning. Later the containers are refilled, labeled and further sent for shipment.

A refilling system can save money on the cost per shipment and can reduce the environmental footprint of the packaging. Typically, the materials used to make refill packaging include steel, glass, wood, polypropylene sheets or other plastic materials.

Several types of consumer containers have been in refill systems. Reusable cylinders for various gases and reusable bottles for milk, soda, drinks, etc have been part of closed-loop use-return-clean-refill-reuse cycles. Home canning often uses glass mason jars which are often reused several times.

Refillable bottles are used extensively in many countries where 98% of bottles are refillable and 98% of those are returned by consumers. In some developing nations, the cost of new bottles often forces manufacturers to collect and refill old glass bottles for selling their products.

Printer ink cartridges are sorted by brand and model, to be refilled or resold back to the manufacturers. The companies then refill the ink reservoir to resell to consumers. Toner cartridges are recycled the same way as ink cartridges, using toner instead of ink. This method is highly efficient as there is no energy spent on melting and recreating the cartridges.