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2.9: Regulation of body fluid pH is vital for homeostasis
Hydrogen ion (H+)- hydrogen atom involved in a chemical bond in a chemical reaction can easily lose its electrons
Hydroxide: hydrogen ions are present in pure water, because some of the water molecules dissociate
pH: negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter (0-14)
Alkaline-basic and above 7
Blood pH: 7.35-7.45
Acidosis-low blood pH can lead to coma
Alkalosis: high blood pH- causes muscle contractions
Acid: any solute that dissociates in solution and releases hydrogen ions, lowering pH
Base: solute that removes hydrogen ions from solution and acts as a proton acceptor (NaCl)
Carbonic acid: weak acid found in body fluids
Salts: ionic compound consisting of any cation except a hydrogen ion and any anion except a hydroxide ion.
Buffers: compounds that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing or replacing hydrogen ions
Buffer systems: involved weak acid and related salt which functions as a weak base
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2.8: Physiological systems depend on water
Ionization or dissociation: ionic bonds are broken as the individual ions interact with the positive or negative poles of polar water molecules
Hydration sphere: sheath of water molecules around an ion in solution
Hydrophilic: molecules that interact readily with water molecules
What are the most important electrolytes?
NaCl, KCl, CaPO4, NaHCO3, NgCl2, Na2HPO4, Na2SO4
Hydrophobic: molecules that don't readily interact with water
Colloid: solution containing dispersed proteins or other large molecules
Suspension: larger particles that will settle out in solution
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Chapter 2, section 3: Importance of water in the body
Properties of water:
Lubrication: little friction between water molecules, good for joints and cavities
Reactivity: Chemical reactions occur in water and need them for chemical reactions such as hydrolysis and dehydration
High heat capacity: ability to absorb and retain heat. Molecules in liquid state are attracted through hydrogen bonding
Solubility: Ability to dissolve
Solution:- uniform mixture
Solvent: Like water
Solutes: substance dispersed
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2.7: Enzymes lower the activation energy requirements of chemical reactions
What is activation energy?
Energy required to start reaction
What are enzymes?
Special proteins to perform complex synthesis and decomp
What are catalysts?
Compounds that accelerate chemical reactions without being permanently changed or consumed.
What are metabolic pathways?
Complex reactions that support life proceed in a series of interlocking steps
What is exergonic versus endergonic?
Ex- reactions that release energy
En- Reactions that require more energy than released
What is metabolites?
include all the molecules that can be synthesized or broken down by chemical reactions
What is nutrients?
Essential metabolites normally gained from diet
Organic- always has carbon and hydrogen (sugar, fats, proteins)
Inorganic- no carbon or hydrogens ( acids, bases, salts)
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2.6: Three basic types of chemical reactions
Decomposition:
breaks a molecule into smaller fragments. Can be outside or inside of cells
Hydrolysis: Decomposition reaction involving water. Components of water are added to the resulting fragments
Catabolism: decomposition reactions of complex molecules within the cells and tissues (CD--> C+D + engery)
Synthesis:
Assembles smaller molecules into larger ones
Dehydration or Condensation:
Formation of a complex molecule by the removal of water
Anabolism: synthesis of new molecules within the body's cells and tissues
Equilibrium:
Rates at which the two reactions proceed are in balance
Exchange reactions:
Parts of the reacting molecules are shuffled around to produce new products
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Section 2.5: Chemical notation is a concise method of describing chemical reactions
What is chemical notation?
Chemical shorthand
What are the rules of chemical notation?
1. Symbol of an element indicates one atom of that element
2. Numbers preceding the symbol of an element indicated more than one atom of that element
3. Subscript following the symbol of an element indicated a molecule with that number of atoms of that element
4. Reactions --> Products
5. Superscript plus or minus following the symbol of an element indicates and ion.
6. Chemical reactions never create or destroy atoms, but rearrange them
What is a mole?
Quantity with a weight in grams equal to an element's atomic weight
What is molecular weight?
molecule is the sum of the atomic weights
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Chapter 2, Section 2: Chemical Reactions
What are reactants?
Reacting substances
What are products?
Different substances
What is metabolism?
All of the reactions under way in the cells and tissues of the body
What is work?
Movement of an object or a change in the physical structure
What is energy?
Capacity to perform work
What is kinetic energy versus potential energy?
K- energy of motion, P- stored energy
Why does your body temp rise when you exercise?
When a muscle contracts, it performs work, the potential energy is then kinetic energy and the energy is released as heat.
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2.4: Matter may exist as a solid, a liquid, or a gas
Solids: maintain shape, volume at normal temperatures and pressures
Liquids: constant volume but no fixed shape
Gas: constant volume nor a fixed shape
What is hydrogen bond?
Weak attractive force
What is surface tension?
Hydrogen bonds between water molecules slow the rate of evaporation
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2.3: Most common chemical bonds are ionic bonds and covalent bonds
What is a compound?
Chemical substance made up of atoms of 2 or more different elements
What are ionic bonds?
Chemical bonds created by the electrical attraction between cations and anions.
What are covalent bonds?
Sharing of electrons
What are molecules?
Chemical structure consisting of atoms of one or more elements held together by chemical bonds
Hydrogen- Single covalent bond- one electron is contributed by each atom
Oxygen- Double covalent
What is a nonpolar molecule?
No electrical charge on a molecule
What is a polar molecule?
When there is asysmetrical charges
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2.2: Electrons occupy various energy levels
What are reactive elements?
The outermost energy level is unfilled and reacts with other atoms.
What are inert elements?
Elements that don't do chemical processes, have filled outer shells
What are cations?
Positive charge. Loses an electron
What are anions?
Negative charge. Gains electrons
What are chemical bonds?
Interactions that stabilize the outer energy levels of atoms
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2.1 : Typical atoms contain protons, neutrons, and electrons
What is the atomic number?
The number of protons
What is the mass number?
Total number of protons and neutrons
What is electron shell?
Fixed orbit that electrons travel around
What are isotopes?
Atoms who nuclei contain the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.
What is the atomic weight?
Actual mass of the atom (measured in dalton or amu)
What are the principle elements of the human body?
Oxygen (65)- component of water and other compounds
Carbon (18.6)- In all organic molecules
Hydrogen (9.7)- Component of water and other compounds
Nitrogen (3.2)- Found in proteins, nucleic acids and other organic
Calcium (1.8)- In bones and teeth, important for membrane function, nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and blood clotting
Phosphorus (1.0)- In bones and teeth, nucleic acids and high energy compounds
Potassium (.4) - Important for membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction
Sodium (.2) - Important for blood volume, membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction
Chlorine (.2)- Important for blood volume, membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contractions
Magnesium (.06)- A cofactor for many enzymes
Sulfur (.04)- In many proteins
Iron (.007)- Essential for oxygen transport and energy capture
Iodine (.0002)- Component of hormones of thyroid gland
Trace elements: 14 elements that are present in small amounts
What are chemical symbols?
abbreviation recognized by scientist everywhere
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Chapter 2, Section: Atoms and Molecules
What is the study of chemistry?
Study of the structure of matter
What is mass?
The amount of material in matter, physical property that determines weight of an object in Earth's gravitational field.
What are atoms? What are in Atoms?
Smallest stable units of matter and made of subatomic particles.
Protons- with positive electrical charge
Neutrons- Neutral charge
Electrons- Very small with negative charge
Nucleus- Center of an atom. Mass is determines by number of P and N in nucleus.
Electron cloud- Electrons in the atom whirl around the nucleus
Molecule- when atoms interact and produce larger, more complex structures.
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1.10 Body cavities
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1.9 Directional and sectional terms describe specific points or reference
Anterior- front surface Ventral- belly side Posterior- back surface Cranial- head Superior- top half Caudal- the tail Inferior- bottom half Medial- towards longitudinal axis Lateral- away from longitudinal axis Proximal- towards base Distal- away from base Superficial- near surface Deep- far for surface Transverse- separates superior and inferior portions Sagital- separates right and left portions Midsagittal- perfect halves Parasagittal- uneven halves Frontal- separates anterior and posterior
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1.8 Superficial anatomy and regional anatomy indicate locations on or in the body
What is anatomical position? . How the body is facing What is supine? . Faced up What is prone? . Faced down What are the regions of the human body? 1. Cephalon. Cephalic region 2. Cervicis. Cervical region 3. Thoracics. Thoracic region 4. Brachium. Brachial region 5. Antebrachium. Forearm 6. Carpus. Carpal region 7. Manus. Manual region 8. Abdomen. Abdominal region 9. Lumbus. Lumbar region 10. Gluteus. Butt 11. Pelvis. Pelvic 12. Inguen. Inguinal region 13. Femur. Femoral region 14. Crus. Crural region 15. Sura. Surat region 16. Tarsus. Tarsal regions 17. Pes. Pedal region 18. Plants. Plantar region Who uses abdominal pelvic quadrants? Clinicians Who uses abdominal pelvic regions? Anatomists
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1.7 Negative feedback provides stability whereas positive feedback accelerates a process to completion
What is feedback? . Receptor stimulation triggers a response that changes the environment at the receptor What is negative feedback? . Effector is activated by control center opposes the original stimulus . Like temperature control . Never stops What is positive feedback? . Initial stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the change in the original changes in the original condition. . Like blood clotting . It does eventually stop
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Section 3 Homeostasis
What is homeostasis? . Presence of stable internal environment What is homeostasis regulation? . Adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis How do you regulate homeostasis? 1. Receptors- skin or brain, sensitive to changes 2. Control center- receives and processes information 3. Effector- responds to stimulus What is set point? . Desired value
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