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The Lost 30 Years - Seol Woon-do/ Jin Bo-ra/ Na Hoon-a, etc. (잃어버린 30년 - 설운도/ 진보라/ 나훈아 등) - Episode 11/35 (Pt. 5)

This document constitutes the fifth segment of the Korean album 'The Lost 30 Years,' featuring notable artists such as Seol Woon-do, Jin Bo-ra, and Na Hoon-a. It will examine the broadcast schedule over the 34 days of transmission, the technologies employed in broadcasting, and additional relevant topics. For a thorough understanding, readers are encouraged to consult part one, which outlines the album's context, the background of the broadcast, program planning, and content, along with parts two and three that provide an in-depth analysis of the broadcast itself. The live broadcast initiated on June 30, 1983, followed by an emergency broadcast relay from July 1 to July 10, 1983, and resumed regular programming from July 15, 1983, until November 14, 1983.

Aside

Significant occurrences took place during KBS's Live Special Broadcast and continued in subsequent years, extending into the 21st century.

A notable instance in the history of KBS broadcasting that justifies the license fee is this particular program. During that period, KBS garnered a reputation for financial mismanagement, characterized by the coercive collection of license fees and reliance on advertisements. Their news coverage often favoured the regime, and many of their shows were criticized for imitating American and Japanese formats. While the issue of program plagiarism was primarily recognized by residents in areas like Busan and Ulsan, where Japanese broadcasts were accessible, it did receive some media attention. KBS1 was engaged in broadcasting advertisements at that time, although no separate advertisements were scheduled for this specific program. The only advertisement aired was during the inaugural episode on June 30, 1983. Throughout the five-day live broadcast and subsequent episodes, regional announcers made concerted efforts to feature as many local participants as possible, often leaving little time for music or advertisements. This led to a situation where Seol Woon-do (설운도) became a prominent figure associated with KBS, as the main camera continuously focused on the audience, capturing the enthusiasm of attendees eager to be seen on screen.

As three decades have elapsed since the armistice led to the division of families, many individuals who were children during that period have since established their own families. Nevertheless, the footage reveals these children, now adults, gazing vacantly at their parents and parental figures—uncles and aunts—who are embracing and celebrating together, seemingly frozen in a moment of innocence, unaware of the complexities surrounding them.

Numerous celebrities have experienced family separations, often highlighted in television programs dedicated to reuniting such families. During a search for her family, actress Kim Hae-sook (김해숙) was accompanied by her mother for an interview. Actor Kim In-moon (김인문) was filmed making a phone call to inquire about his family. Singer Kim Soo-hee (김수희) was featured on a program singing while holding a sign requesting information about her maternal uncle, whom she reportedly located in Japan via the embassy in 1976. Comedian Eom Yong-su (엄용수), now the president of the KBS Comedians Association, shared his experience during a special broadcast celebrating the 30th anniversary, recalling how he sought his older sister while his family members took turns monitoring the broadcasting station around the clock, fearing she might come looking for him.

In a poll carried out by Korea Gallup in October 1983, it was found that 53.9% of the 1,450 randomly selected households across the nation reported watching the program until 1 a.m. Additionally, 88.8% of respondents indicated that they had cried while viewing the program.

Heo Nam-gil (허남길), a reporter at the news centre during that period, reflected on the dedication of the staff, stating that everyone exerted considerable effort to maintain seamless broadcasts and meetings. Despite the continuous nature of the broadcasts, the production team faced a shortage of personnel, leading camera operators to manage their nosebleeds while on air.

Citizens actively engaged in efforts to reunite families that had been separated. Many individuals seeking to locate their loved ones congregated in Yeouido, the site of the KBS headquarters. By the third day of the broadcast, volunteers, including students and homemakers, began offering assistance by providing guidance, medical care, and helping others complete applications. Various companies contributed by supplying televisions, portable toilets, and public telephones, while numerous individuals donated items such as train tickets, bottled water, bread, and fans.

Following the government's formal resolution to initiate a nationwide movement aimed at reuniting separated families, akin to the Saemaul Movement, the Railway Administration, then a government entity, established branch offices. These offices were tasked with offering complimentary tickets and assistance with boarding procedures for those families who had located their relatives or were traveling to Seoul in search of them.

Numerous instances emerged where reunions led to subsequent separations. When families with comparable socioeconomic backgrounds or living conditions reunited, they often managed to sustain their relationships to a degree. However, situations became more complicated when a family member remarried or experienced severe financial hardship, exacerbating existing familial issues and ultimately resulting in further breakups. This phenomenon exemplifies the profound tragedies brought by war.

Director Im Kwon-taek's (임권택) film 'Gilsotteum' has garnered significant attention for its nuanced portrayal of the repercussions faced by families reuniting after separation. The film features authentic footage of Yeouido Plaza, where the characters Shin Seong-il (신성일) and Kim Ji-mi (김지미) meet, providing viewers with a vivid representation of the emotional journey involved in reconnecting with estranged family members. The complete film is available for viewing on the Korean Film Archive's YouTube channel.

Certain scenes from the past may appear surprising by contemporary standards, such as the public admiration for Chun Doo-hwan (전두환) and the open disclosure of personal addresses and phone numbers during broadcasts. This era predated the Personal Information Protection Act and the Internet, which limited the ability to access personal data. Future generations may question the appropriateness of such practices, reflecting a significant shift in societal norms regarding privacy. Additionally, the practice of providing detailed area codes and numbers, such as "□□-gun, ○○-myeon, 000-beon," may be difficult for today's audience to comprehend. At that time, only major urban centers had electronic switching systems, while smaller towns relied on manual methods for telephone exchanges. Consequently, a closing remark in the program expressed gratitude to the Telecommunications Corporation staff for their efforts in facilitating the broadcast, highlighting the technological limitations of the period.

Despite the conclusion of the live broadcast in mid-November, individuals continued to gather in search of their estranged family members, leading to the prolonged existence of the 'Meeting Square' in Yeouido Square, which reportedly remained operational until the summer of 1984. This phenomenon is also depicted as a significant theme in the 1983 film "The Last Time I Saw Him, Heungnam," which narrates the evacuation from Heungnam in its first half and the quest for reunited families in the latter half. Additionally, this topic was featured in episode 38 of the MBC drama "Park Soon-kyung (박순경)," (Video Below) aired on July 28, 1983. The ongoing efforts to reconnect families highlight the enduring impact of separation and the societal need for reconciliation during that period.

In the 2014 South Korean film "Ode to My Father," featuring Hwang Jung-min (황정민), Kim Yun-jin (김윤진), and Oh Dal-su (오달수), the narrative revolves around the quest to reunite with a father and younger sister who were lost during the Hungnam Evacuation, a storyline inspired by a live broadcast. This particular scene has also been humorously referenced in SNL Korea. In the film, the audience displays large white placards, yet the actual signs, crafted with magic markers on beige or light green cardboard, are notably smaller, resembling sketchbooks. These authentic placards are preserved at the National Museum of Korean History in Gwanghwamun, where the marker writing has significantly faded over nearly four decades. Observing these signs post-broadcast reveals a stark contrast in the physical stature of Koreans from that era compared to the 21st century, reflecting the socioeconomic changes that have occurred. The elderly individuals depicted in the broadcast appear to have their shoulders obscured by these modest-sized signs, which also exhibit similar fonts, numerous typographical errors, and correction marks, indicative of the staff's efforts to compile information from families seeking reunification.

Seol Woon-do's (설운도) "Lost 30 Years," as detailed in the accompanying song section, rapidly achieved hit status and was recognized by the Guinness World Records for becoming a hit in the shortest duration following its release.

On July 30, 1983, a special feature of the '100 Minute Show' was held at Jangchung Gymnasium to commemorate the 3,000th reunion of separated families. The event, titled 'Lost 30 Years, Regained 30 Years', invited both separated family reunion families and non-separated families. Popular singers such as Kim Soo-hee (김수희), Kim Yeon-ja (김연자), Lee Eun-ha (이은하), and Cho Yong-pil (조용필) performed, and veteran singer Hyun In (현인) sang trot songs. When the songs 'Danjang's Mia-ri Pass' and 'Be Strong, Geum-soon-ah', which captured the spirit of the times, were sung, an audience member who appeared to be a separated family member could be seen sobbing. During the program, announcers Lee Ji-yeon (이지연) and Hwang In-woo (황인우) interviewed separated family reunion families, including siblings Heo Hyeon-cheol (허현철) and Heo Hyeon-ok (허현옥). Part 1 & 2 videos below

The subsequent project, titled 'Searching for Family in Sakhalin,' aired in January 1990 as a special segment of KBS's 9 o'clock news, hosted by anchor Park Sung-beom. This live broadcast was conducted from three distinct locations: the Soviet Sakhalin Broadcasting Station, KBS's Seoul Headquarters, and the Daegu General Office. The repercussions of this live event were later explored in the KBS 1TV special drama 'Time and Tears,' which premiered on June 25, 1992.

KBS produces programs that reflect on the cultural significance of Chuseok and Seollal. On May 1, 2013, KBS 2TV's "Leisurely" marked its 30th anniversary with a special broadcast featuring former hosts MCs Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon, along with frequently invited guests Heo Hyeon-cheol and Heo Hyeon-ok. Notably, the current recording studio for "Leisurely" is situated in the KBS main studio open hall, the same venue that hosted the live broadcast for the search for separated families three decades prior. The latest installment, "Chuseok Special: The River of Meeting Flows," aired on KBS1 on September 25, 2015, showcasing a live event at KBS Plaza, where restored posters from the original family search were displayed. This program included families who had reunited as well as those who had not, with most participants being in their 80s and 90s.

On March 2, 2023, KBS aired a special program to commemorate the 40th anniversary of this significant broadcast. Additionally, this event is referenced in the East Asian history textbook published in 2017, highlighting its importance in the cultural and historical narrative of the region. The ongoing engagement with themes of family and reunion underscores the enduring impact of these broadcasts on Korean society.

In 2019, KBS organized a notable exhibition entitled “Searching for Separated Families.” This event highlighted materials associated with the “KBS Special Live Broadcast, Searching for Separated Families,” which aired for 138 consecutive days starting in June 1983 and is recognized as a UNESCO Memory of the World. The exhibition featured not only the original broadcast tapes but also posters and storyboards related to the separated families, alongside photographs taken during the event, all displayed at KBS in Yeouido. Additionally, the exhibition was discussed in KBS1's History Journal That Day on March 2, 2021. In an interview, the original author, Woo-young Lee, expressed his intention to incorporate the character Lee Gi-man from the Black Rubber Shoes comic as a significant aspect of the project, alongside the theme of Finding Separated Families. Unfortunately, this vision could not be realized due to the passing of Woo-young Lee.

On February 21, 2023, a special program (above) was aired to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the current affairs planning window, focusing on the theme of separated families. Subsequently, on March 2, 2023 (below), Morning Plaza also featured a special broadcast celebrating this significant milestone. Additionally, KBS News 9 dedicated a segment on June 30, 2023, to honour the 40th anniversary with a brief special feature.

Yoo Cheol-jong, the host of the program Finding Separated Families, was 50 years old at the time of the anniversary and later shared his status in 2019 when he was 86. Announcer Lee Ji-yeon garnered attention for her request to Jinpum Myeongpum to evaluate a manuscript she had fortuitously found while cleaning her home, which was used in the broadcast production. Given that the broadcast material is recognized as World Documentary Heritage, the potential for the manuscript's appraisal to achieve similar status raises its significance. Veteran singer Kwak Soon-ok, who performed the theme song "Who Doesn't Know This Person," reflecting the grief of separated families, passed away at the age of 91 on September 12, 2023.

Finding separated families overseas

Numerous broadcasts have highlighted the experiences of separated families across the globe. Historical instances include the separation of families in Western Europe during World War II and the dislocation caused by poverty in the United States during the Great Depression. The television program 'Unsolved Mysteries,' which aired for two decades in the United States, exemplified this theme. Blending elements of investigative journalism and human interest stories, the show not only focused on wanted criminals and unresolved cases but also featured segments dedicated to reuniting lost family members, lovers, and friends. Many episodes specifically addressed the search for biological families separated by these significant historical events.

In contemporary Western societies, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, the prevalence of adoption and divorce has led to a growing number of individuals seeking to reconnect with their biological families. This phenomenon underscores a universal human inclination towards understanding one's lineage and heritage. The desire to trace one's roots is a common thread that transcends cultural boundaries, reflecting a deep-seated need for connection and identity among individuals separated from their familial origins.

'Long Lost Family' is a television program that originated in the UK and has been adapted in various countries, including the United States, Norway, Finland, and Australia.

A French broadcast titled "Y a que la vérité qui compte," which translates to "The only thing that matters is the truth," focuses on a woman's quest to reunite with her biological mother after being separated from her at a young age. The video highlights her emotional journey and the significance of truth in the search for familial connections.

External Links

KBS <Finding Separated Families> Official Website

KBS official YouTube channel with footage from that time - The KBS Archive Channel, which initially focused solely on videos related to reuniting separated families, underwent a transformation in 2019, rebranding itself as 'KBS Archive: Old TV.' This revamped channel now features a broader array of archival content, including videos preserved by KBS as well as those contributed by viewers.

Channels uploaded with English subtitles for overseas Koreans -A highlight video of the reunion is currently being uploaded. In addition to the footage of reunited families, other videos pertaining to the Korean War and the experiences of separated families are also being shared.

Live broadcast of finding separated families 30 years later, the protagonists of memories - A unique live transmission celebrating the designation of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

KBS Finding Separated Families YouTube Playlist

UNESCO Homepage

UNESCO Korean National Commission website

[cosmosbeelover]

The Lost 30 Years - Seol Woon-do/ Jin Bo-ra/ Na Hoon-a, etc. (잃어버린 30년 - 설운도/ 진보라/ 나훈아 등) - Episode 11/35 (Pt. 4)

This document constitutes the fourth segment of the Korean album 'The Lost 30 Years,' featuring notable artists such as Seol Woon-do, Jin Bo-ra, and Na Hoon-a. It will examine the broadcast schedule over the 34 days of transmission, the technologies employed in broadcasting, and additional relevant topics. For a thorough understanding, readers are encouraged to consult part one, which outlines the album's context, the background of the broadcast, program planning, and content, along with parts two and three that provide an in-depth analysis of the broadcast itself. The live broadcast initiated on June 30, 1983, followed by an emergency broadcast relay from July 1 to July 10, 1983, and resumed regular programming from July 15, 1983, until November 14, 1983.

Broadcast List:

To ensure that these historical records are accessible to descendants and the global community, KBS digitized all episodes of Searching for Separated Families and began uploading them to YouTube on March 5, 2014. Subsequently, in October 2015, this initiative was recognized as a UNESCO Memory of the World.

Continuation from Part 3

Day 8, recorded on July 15, 1983, Friday, to July 16, Saturday, from 10:15 PM to 2:50 PM, was moderated by Yoo Cheol-jong (유철종) and Lee Ji-yeon (이지연).

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11 #12, #13, #14, #15

Day 9, recorded on July 22, 1983, Friday, to July 23, Saturday, from 10:15 PM to 1:45 PM, with moderators Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13, #14

On the 10th day, specifically dated July 29, 1983, Friday, to July 30, Saturday, from 10:15 PM to 6:00 PM, the moderators included Yoo Cheol-jong, Lee Ji-yeon, Hwang In-yong (황인용), and Kang Bu-ja (강부자).

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13, #14, #15

Day 11, recorded on August 5-6, 1983, from 10:15 PM to 6:00 PM, features moderators Yoo Cheol-jong, Lee Ji-yeon, Kim Dong-gun (김동건), and Shin Eun-kyung (신은경).

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9 , #10, #11, #12, #13, #14, #15, #16

Day 12, recorded on August 12, 1983, spanned from 10:15 PM to 3:20 PM the next day, featuring moderators Yoo Cheol-jong, Lee Ji-yeon, Kim Dong-gun, and Shin Eun-kyung. This session was part of a special program commemorating Liberation Day.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10,#11, #12, #13, #14, #15, #16

Day 13, recorded from 11:50 PM on Saturday, August 13, 1983, to 2:25 AM on Sunday, August 14, 1983, and resuming from 7:00 AM to 5:25 PM on the same day, was facilitated by Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon as part of a special program commemorating Liberation Day.

Video Notes August 13 - #1, #2, #3 Video Notes August 14 - #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12

On August 15, 1983, known as Liberation Day, the event's moderators, who facilitated the proceedings from 12:10 AM to 6:00 PM, were Kim Dong-gun, Shin Eun-kyung, Yoo Cheol-jong, and Lee Ji-yeon. The auxiliary activities were coordinated by Son Seok-gi (손석기) and Kim Mi-hoe (김미회) at the Public Hall as part of the special program for Liberation Day.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13, #14, #15, #16

Day 15, recorded on August 19-20, 1983, from 10:15 PM to 3:10 PM, featured moderators Yoo Cheol-jong, Lee Ji-yeon, Kim Dong-gun, and Shin Eun-kyung.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13, #14, #15

Day 16, recorded on August 26, 1983, from 10:15 PM to 3:00 AM, continuing into August 27, 1983, from 7:50 AM to 2:10 PM, featured moderators Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10

Day 17, recorded on September 2, 1983, Friday, through September 3, Saturday, from 10:15 PM to 3:00 AM, continuing until 8:10 AM on September 3, Saturday, with the moderators being Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10

Day 18, recorded on September 9, 1983. From 10:15 PM on Friday, September 9, to 3:00 AM on Saturday, September 10, and continuing from 8:00 AM to 4:30 PM on the same day, the moderators overseeing the proceedings were Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13

Day 19, recorded on September 16, 1983, spanned from 10:15 PM to 3:00 AM, and resumed on September 17, 1983, from 8:00 AM to 6:10 PM, with moderators Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon overseeing the Chuseok special program.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13, #14

On September 17, 1983, the event commenced at 11:30 PM and extended until 3:20 AM, transitioning into September 18, 1983. The session reconvened from 8:50 AM to 5:40 PM, under the supervision of moderators Kim Dong-gun and Lee Kang-ja, as part of a Chuseok special program.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12

On September 18, 1983, designated as Day 21, the scheduled activities commenced at 11:40 PM on Monday, September 19, and extended until 3:00 AM, resuming at 9:20 AM and concluding at 5:20 PM on the same day. The events were supervised by moderators Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon, as part of a special Chuseok program.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13

Day 22, recorded on September 19, 1983, spanned from 10:15 PM to 4:10 AM, extending into September 20, 1983, from 9:20 AM to 5:30 PM, with Kim Dong-gun and Lee Kang-ja acting as moderators for a Chuseok special program.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13, #14

Day 23, recorded on September 23, 1983, through September 24, 1983, from 10:30 PM to 4:00 AM and continuing on September 24 from 8:00 AM to 6:10 PM, featured moderators Yoo Cheol-jong, Lee Ji-yeon, Kim Dong-gun, and Lee Kang-ja (이강자). The total broadcast duration surpassed 300 hours.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13, #14, #15, #16

Day 24, recorded on September 24, 1983, spans from Saturday night at 10:50 PM to Sunday morning at 3:30 AM, continuing until 8:10 AM on September 25, 1983, and concluding at 3:10 PM. The moderators overseeing this period were Kim Dong-gun, Lee Kang-ja, Yoo Cheol-jong, and Lee Ji-yeon.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12

Day 25, recorded on September 29, 1983, Thursday, to September 30, Friday, from 10:15 PM to 10:00 AM, featured moderators Kim Dong-gun and Lee Kang-ja, highlighting the October Holiday Special Program.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10

Day 26, recorded on October 1, 1983, from 10:15 PM to 3:00 AM, and continuing on the same day from 8:00 AM to 3:40 PM, the moderators for the October Holiday Special Program were Yoo Cheol-jong, Lee Ji-yeon, Kim Dong-gun, and Lee Kang-ja.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13

On Day 27, recorded on October 1, 1983, the activities spanned from Saturday night at 10:40 PM to Sunday morning at 3:35 AM, continuing into October 2, 1983, from 8:10 AM to 5:20 PM. The moderators for this October Holiday Special Program included Kim Dong-gun, Lee Kang-ja, Yoo Cheol-jong, and Lee Ji-yeon.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12, #13, #14

Day 28, recorded on October 3, 1983, during the early hours from 12:05 AM to 3:20 AM, and again from 6:00 AM to 7:00 AM, followed by a session from 10:30 AM to 4:05 PM, the moderators Yoo Cheol-jong, Lee Ji-yeon, Kim Dong-gun, and Lee Kang-ja facilitated the October Holiday Special Program.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6 (This recording did not record any audio), #7, #8, #9, #10

Day 29, recorded on October 3, 1983, from 11:15 PM to 3:00 AM, featured moderators Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon for the October Holiday Special Program.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4

On the 30th day, dated October 6, 1983, from 10:45 PM to 3:00 AM, and continuing on October 7, 1983, from 6:10 AM to 10:00 AM, the moderators were Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8

Day 31, recorded on October 7, 1983, from 11:20 PM to 4:00 AM, and continuing on October 8, 1983, from 1:00 PM to 5:50 PM, the moderators overseeing the sessions were Kim Dong-gun, Lee Kang-ja, Yoo Cheol-jong, and Lee Ji-yeon.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10

On Day 32, documented on October 8, 1983, the event was moderated by Kim Dong-gun, Lee Kang-ja, Yoo Cheol-jong, and Lee Ji-yeon. The sessions commenced at 10:40 PM on October 8 and concluded at 3:00 AM on October 9, with a subsequent session running from 10:30 AM to 4:50 PM on the same day. The audio (Video 10) features a special news report regarding the bombing at Aung San Mausoleum, along with recordings of the public hall where the audience was gathered at that time.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10

On Day 33, spanning from October 14 to October 15, 1983, the moderators overseeing the event were Yoo Cheol-jong, Lee Ji-yeon, Kim Dong-gun, and Lee Kang-ja. The activities took place from 11:15 PM to 4:00 AM, and continued the following day from 8:10 AM to 4:50 PM.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12

On Day 34, spanning from October 21, 1983, at 10:15 PM to October 22, 1983, at 1:00 PM, the final day of the broadcast occurred.

Video Links -#1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8

Broadcasting Technology

In the past, broadcasting technology in Korea relied heavily on imported equipment from countries like Japan, which, by contemporary standards, was quite rudimentary. Unlike today's capabilities for simultaneous broadcasting across multiple platforms, the KBS Seoul Yeouido headquarters could only mix audio with regional stations, lacking the ability to display video. This limitation was starkly contrasted by the United States, which, during news broadcasts, could connect three locations simultaneously and present them on screen. In Korea, the visual output was limited to a single screen that could only partially display the transmitted content, often resembling an erasure effect when transitioning between scenes.

As technology progressed, Korea managed to achieve a rudimentary form of dual broadcasting by overlaying images from different regional stations. This was accomplished using electrical analogy equipment, a significant departure from the digital methods employed today, such as chroma keying or green screen technology. The distinction between electrical and electronic systems lies in the method of image display; current digital systems utilize computer RAM to manage image data, while earlier systems relied on physical overlays of electrical signals. By 1983, the US had already integrated computers into their broadcasting equipment, highlighting a technological gap that Korea was striving to bridge.

Seoul KBS operates a studio in Yeouido, housed within its main building, which was completed in 1976, making it relatively new at that time. The annex, the former TBC building, was finished in 1980. Despite featuring modern facilities, it fell short of the operational expertise found in the United States and Japan. The broadcast subtitles, referred to as 'Supa,' derived from the term 'superimpose,' reflect a mispronunciation of the Japanese word for super (スーパーインポーズ). Unlike contemporary methods that allow for quick text entry via a keyboard, the subtitle creation process involved calligraphy or typesetting, necessitating scanning for display. Consequently, during the initial three days of broadcasting, regional station identifiers were inconsistently shown, and discrepancies in font and subtitle positioning arose between Seoul and the regional stations. In 1981, the introduction of the CG-800 computer character generator from Japan's Kowa marked a technological advancement, although its application was restricted to news programming.

The early broadcast footage reveals a stark contrast in image quality between the Seoul broadcast and local stations. The equipment utilized in Seoul was on par with that of Japan, having been upgraded in anticipation of the Seoul Olympics. In contrast, local broadcasting stations were limited to only two or three cameras and inadequate lighting, resulting in poor white balance and depth. In metropolitan areas like Daejeon, audio issues were prevalent, with significant howling during connections, necessitating the use of earphones by local guests. Furthermore, while KBS headquarters began broadcasting dynamic images and animations on its channels as early as 1984, regional stations lagged behind, primarily showing still images until the early 1990s.

During this period, the integration of SNG technology enabled live broadcasts not only from the Seoul KBS headquarters but also from various regional stations. Although the broadcasting technology of the time was rudimentary compared to contemporary standards, significant advancements were made through the tumultuous live broadcasts of major events, including the 1986 Seoul Asian Games and the 1988 Seoul Olympics. These developments marked a pivotal moment in the evolution of Korean broadcasting technology.

Other matters than Broadcasting:

Additional concerns beyond broadcasting involve events occurring outside the broadcasting station, including the incorporation of songs and responses from international audiences.

Yeouido Meeting Square

On the inaugural day of the live broadcast, both the area in front of the KBS main building and Yeouido Plaza, along with the entirety of Yeouido Park, underwent a transformation into an asphalt plaza.

On July 1, families separated by circumstances began an overnight vigil at the KBS Central Hall, driven by the cessation of application acceptance due to an overwhelming influx. In this context, Kwak Man-young (곽만영), a key figure in the narrative of sibling reunification, became the first to display posters on the walls and pillars of the KBS main building, marking the beginning of a grassroots movement for family reconnection.

Within a few days, the posters proliferated throughout the main building, reaching even the highest pillars. The once-visible windows and vents of the KBS structure became obscured by the sheer volume of messages. The initiative soon expanded beyond the building, spilling into Yeouido Plaza, where some individuals experienced fortunate reunions after their posters were displayed. However, the majority faced the grim reality of searching for their loved ones, often resorting to unconventional methods to ensure their messages stood out amidst the deluge of posters.

The desperation of those seeking their families led to the transformation of the area surrounding KBS into a makeshift tent village, with many individuals foregoing basic necessities like food and water. Notably, even Seol Woon-do (설운도), a guest performer, was moved by the plight of the families and chose to sleep alongside them, sharing in their struggle. This collective effort highlighted the profound human desire for connection and the lengths to which individuals would go to reunite with their loved ones.

This photo was later attached to the 2nd semester 5th grade social studies textbook of the Ministry of Education.

On July 9, the initiative to reunite separated families escalated into a national movement, prompting the establishment of a 'Meeting Square' at the site of the Korea Industrial Bank, which officially opened on August 5. This space featured amenities such as a water fountain, medical facilities, and a mobile public telephone, with support from the Telecommunications Corporation, the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications, and the Railway Administration Branch Office. According to Son Gil-shin (손길신), the director of the Railway Museum at that time, once families were identified, they received travel tickets and accommodations in designated areas, including the five northern provinces, unrecovered regions of Gyeonggi-do and Gangwon-do, as well as Sakhalin, China, Japan, and other countries with significant Korean populations.

The Meeting Square was organized to facilitate the identification of separated families, with sections and tents set up for this purpose. Non-commercial items were made available at the plaza, as well as at KBS regional stations and municipal offices. Additionally, legal professionals, including lawyers and administrative scribes, volunteered their services to provide guidance on post-reunion legal matters, such as name changes, inheritance issues, and family registration processes. KBS managed the Meeting Square for a full year, continuing its support for separated families until the following summer, after the broadcast concluded in November.

Individuals present at the Meeting Square, including broadcaster Lee Sang-byeok (이상벽) and photographer Jo In-hwan (조인환), later reflected on the atmosphere of the space. They noted that amidst the numerous pieces of paper affixed to the walls and floors, no one added their own notes to those already posted by others. This behaviour highlighted a profound sense of consideration among attendees, who, despite their urgent desire to reunite with their families, respected the shared experience of others in similar circumstances.

Insert Song

These two songs serve as exemplars, and the video above has been uploaded directly from the KBS account.

The initial broadcast featured a segment where performers emerged to establish a musical ambiance. On that first day, Hyun In (현인) and Kim Yeon Ja (김연자) delivered a poignant song, while the announcers briefly paused to receive guidance from the production director, serving as a transitional element. However, the production team quickly recognized that such direction was unnecessary, as the audience, comprised largely of separated families, began to weep uncontrollably during the storytelling segments. As the second day unfolded, the public hall became chaotic with the presence of separated families, production staff, and journalists, leading Kim Yeon Ja to perform only one song after enduring a 16-hour wait. Subsequently, background music was played, and camera operators focused on the audience's signs, with the singers returning to perform once the program resumed its regular schedule. From that point onward, Seol Woon Do (설운도) became a frequent presence in the public hall.

The original title, "Who Doesn't Know This Person?", was relatively obscure prior to its broadcast. This song, performed by Kwak Soon-ok (곽순옥), served as the theme for the 1964 radio drama "South and North," written by Han Woon-sa (한운사). When the broadcast was scheduled in 1983, Kwak Soon-ok, residing in Hong Kong at the time, was unable to perform the title track, leading to Patty Kim, a close associate, taking her place. As the program aimed at reuniting separated families progressed, Kwak Soon-ok made a special appearance to perform the song, credited under her original title, "South and North." The drama was later adapted into a film featuring Shin Young-kyun (신영균) and Um Aing-ran (엄앵란), with a subsequent remake starring Shin Il-ryong (신일룡) and Won Mi-kyung (원미경). In the early 1990s, MBC produced another version with Park Sang-won (박상원), Lee Mi-sook (이미숙), and Gil Yong-woo (길용우), during which the song's title replaced the original "South and North." Surprisingly, two decades later, in the 2000s, it began to be utilized as a sound effect in response to unfortunate events on variety shows. A similar instance is the song "You," performed by Kim Jeong-ho (김정호) shortly before his passing; this poignant track, imbued with feelings of resentment, has also found frequent use in entertainment programming since the early 21st century.

Who doesn't know this person? With a gentle body, shining eyes, and a kind heart like the moon, Who doesn't know this woman who swore with me by the riverside that she would go to the ends of the earth ? Who doesn't know this person? With soft passion and brightness, once you give your heart, it won't change. Who doesn't know this woman who swore in my arms that she would follow my dreams and follow me ?  --- 누가 이 사람을 모르시나요 얌전한 몸매에 빛나는 눈 고운 마음씨는 달덩이같이 이 세상 끝까지 가겠노라고 나 하고 강가에서 맹세를 하던 이 여인을 누가 모르시나요 누가 이 사람을 모르시나요 부드러운 정열에 화사한 이 한 번 마음주면 변함이 없어 꿈 따라 임 따라 가겠노라고 내 품에 안기어서 맹세를 하던 이 여인을 누가 모르시나요 --- English & Korean Lyrics of 'Who doesn't know this person'

Following the standard airing, the title would be altered to Seol Woon-do's 'The Lost 30 Years.'

Rain or shine, wind or shine For thirty years of missing  each other How much did I cry, feeling sad for this body that had nowhere to rely on?  My brothers and I, may we meet again and share the love we couldn't share,  Where are you, Mother and Father?  I sing with a choked voice.  Will it be tomorrow or the day after? Thirty years of waiting, filled with tears  How much did I cry, feeling sad for losing my hometown?  My brothers and I, may we meet again and share the love we couldn't share,  Where are you, Mother and Father?  I sing with a choked voice -Full --- 비가오나 눈이오나 바람이 부나 그리웠던 삼십년 세월  의지할 곳 없는 이 몸 서러워하며 그 얼마나 울었던가요  우리 형제 이제라도 다시 만나서 못다한 정 나누는데  어머님 아버님 그 어디에 계십니까  목메이게 불러 봅니다  내일일까 모레일까 기다린 것이 눈물 맺힌 삼십년 세월  고향 잃은 이 신세를 서러워하며 그 얼마나 울었던가요  우리 남매 이제라도 다시 만나서 못다한 정 나누는데  어머님 아버님 그 어디에 계십니까  목메이게 불러 봅니다 --- English and Korean lyrics of 'Lost 30 Year'.

Seol Woon-do, at the age of 26, made his debut in 1981 through KBS's "Birth of a New Artist" program, yet remained largely unrecognized for nearly two years. His breakthrough came when his agency, after viewing the program, recognized his potential and swiftly recorded a revised version of his song "To My Father," which was released in 1982. The following day, the song gained immense popularity, leading to an emotional family gathering as they witnessed his success. The agency explained that Seol Woon-do was the only artist available for the broadcast at that time. In the program's early days, his manager had to hold the lyrics for him, as he struggled to memorize them. Seol Woon-do recounted waiting all day with the announcers, and when the producer finally called for him, he performed on stage, singing "The Lost 30 Years" repeatedly. He described being so immersed in the emotional atmosphere that he lost track of his performance, often feeling as if he were possessed by the moment, with the song resonating deeply even in his everyday life.

Numerous songs capitalized on prevailing trends during this period, including one titled "Separated Family." The artist Jeon Mi-kyung (전미경), who performed this piece, also sang "Jang Nok-su," (장녹수) which was featured in the drama of the same name twelve years later. Additionally, various songs, including children's songs like "Our Wish," "Longing for Geumgangsan," and "Taogi," were incorporated into the media. Notably, Jo Young-nam (조영남), a displaced individual from Pyeongsan-gun in Hwanghae-do, performed "Our Wish," which served as the closing theme for a program airing at the time the government initiated a nationwide campaign to locate separated families.

Our wish is unification Even in our dreams, our wish is unification We dedicate our lives to unification , unification, come. Unification that will save this people, to find my country, unification, unification, come quickly , unification , come. Our wish is unification Even in our dreams, our wish is unification We dedicate our lives to unification, unification, come. The way to find my country, unification , unification, to save this people, unification, come quickly, unification, come.  --- 우리의 소원은 통일 꿈에도 소원은 통일 이 정성 바쳐서 통일 통일이여 오라. 이 겨레 살리는 통일 내 나라 찾는데 통일 통일이여 어서 오라 통일이여 오라. 우리의 소원은 통일 꿈에도 소원은 통일 이 목숨 바쳐서 통일 통일이여 오라 내 나라 찾는길 통일 이겨레 살리는 통일 통일이여 어서 오라 통일이여 오라. --- Full text of the lyrics both in English and Korean of 'Our Wish' sung by Jo Young-nam. The lyrics in bold are different from the original.

KBS subsequently published a compilation of insert songs performed by multiple artists, featuring tracks such as "Lost 30 Years" and "Who Doesn’t Know This Person?" The album is titled "Lost 30 Years." Seol Woon-do has mentioned that he still possesses this album in his home.

These documents pertain to the live broadcast that occurred during that period. Additionally, these commemorative records have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage.

Overseas Reactions

"The national significance of the Family Reunification Program is reflected by its impact on the Korean people. The television program was the first use of mass media to facilitate postwar reunification and had the widest public participation of any Korean broadcast. (Omitted) Nevertheless, the Family Reunification Program had great global significance in revealing lesser-known consequences of the Cold War and the Korean War. In an era when widespread access to television was just beginning, the Family Reunification Program provided one of the first vivid accounts of the consequences of war on civilians." - English Wikipedia

In 1983, UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar conveyed profound sympathy and comprehension regarding the plight of separated families during a discussion with South Korean Ambassador to the UN, Kim Kyung-won (김경원). Additionally, a group of 17 representatives from seven nations, alongside a delegation from the International Federation for Human Rights, visited the site during the 70th Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) General Assembly in Seoul. Meanwhile, journalists from 25 countries occupied the press room established in the KBS main building, providing real-time coverage of the reunions to a global audience. The broadcast elicited an enthusiastic response, and its historical importance during the Cold War was underscored by extensive coverage from major media outlets in the United States and Japan. The accompanying video, submitted to UNESCO, features AP's teletype transmission, a report from ABC on July 3, and coverage from TBS TV in Japan, including a segment of then US President Ronald Reagan's speech advocating for North Korea's involvement in the program.

This broadcast was recognized as the 'Most Humanitarian Program of 1983' during the 6th World Conference of Journalists, which took place in Cartagena, Colombia, from September 6 to 9, 1983. Additionally, it received the 'Gold Mercury Ad Horneram Award' at the 24th Gold Mercury World Peace and Cooperation Conference in Gabon on February 17, 1984, marking a significant achievement for the broadcasting organization. Furthermore, it was incorporated as a textbook in broadcasting studies at the University of Greenwich in England.

The program played a crucial role in highlighting the plight of families separated by the division of North and South Korea, elevating the issue to an international platform. In 1983, Yoo Chang-soon (유창순), then President of the Korean Red Cross, called for the resumption of inter-Korean talks, emphasizing the urgency of addressing the separated families' situation. Both President Chun Doo-hwan (전두환) and U.S. President Ronald Reagan expressed their support for family reunification. These collective efforts culminated in 1985, when a North Korean delegation visited KBS, facilitating the first reunion of separated families between the two Koreas.

Idea provider, President Lee Won-hong

Ahn Guk-jeong (안국정), the architect behind the program, revealed in the September 15, 1999 edition of the Chosun Ilbo's serialized project 'Adieu... 20th Century' - 'Live Broadcast to Find Separated Families', that the initiative was inspired by Lee Won-hong (이원홍), the then-president. In his account, President Lee commended Ahn for his successful live broadcast 'Nakdonggang 1300-ri', which highlighted the reunions of survivors from the Battle of Nakdonggang, and subsequently suggested the concept of reuniting separated families from both South and North Korea.

While the original vision may have aimed at facilitating reunions across the Korean divide, practical considerations necessitated a focus on reunions within South Korea due to the complexities involved in negotiating with North Korea. The program ultimately emerged from an unforeseen proposition: "What if we could connect through television in this manner?" This shift in focus reflects the challenges of addressing the sensitive issue of family separations in the context of inter-Korean relations.

Psychological warfare against NK

The report by 'Tongil News' regarding the contents of declassified diplomatic documents suggests that the initiative to broadcast programs aimed at reuniting separated families was initially conceived as a tool for psychological warfare. However, an analysis of the broadcast content indicates that the relevant document was likely drafted after the commencement of the broadcasts. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a directive in 1983, which was later declassified in 2014, instructing diplomatic missions to leverage this program for psychological operations against North Korea and for security education purposes, yet it did not mandate the creation of the broadcast itself. KBS and the government, responsible for the live broadcast, framed their efforts as a humanitarian endeavor.

In summary, a review of both the disclosed documents and the broadcast content implies that the initiative was not meticulously designed for psychological warfare. Instead, it appears that, following its success and popularity, a directive was issued to utilize the broadcast for propaganda and psychological influence. Thus, while the original intent may not have been to employ the broadcast as a weapon of psychological warfare, it became a tool for such purposes after its launch, with notable figures, including Chun Doo-hwan (전두환), later participating in the initiative.

Some contend that the government orchestrated the broadcasts as a form of psychological warfare against the North, citing inaccuracies in the live broadcast dates. However, this assertion is misguided. Initially, the broadcasts did not anticipate an extension beyond the first three days. The comprehensive live coverage persisted until July 4, with the production and airing of the program commencing on that date. Notably, there were variations in the structure of the opening, commentary, and the first hour of the broadcast, as well as coordination with local broadcasters. The transition to regular broadcasting occurred on July 5.

The elements that could be interpreted as propaganda or psychological warfare in the commentary began to surface on the third day, specifically during the segment hosted by announcer Kim Dong-geon (김동건). In contrast, the broadcasts on the first two days did not include such content. On the second day, a political reporter provided a brief overview of the historical division between the South and North, but the report became increasingly ambiguous as the reunion scenes unfolded. Furthermore, on the inaugural day, there was no indication of when the broadcast would take place, suggesting a lack of planning for an all-day live event, as evidenced by comments indicating surprise at the duration of the broadcast.

On July 10, the State Council officially passed a resolution to initiate a nationwide movement, akin to the Saemaul Movement, spearheaded by the Korean Red Cross. This external impetus yielded significant outcomes, as evidenced by the North Korean Red Cross's delivery of relief supplies and rice to the South during the catastrophic Han River flood in 1984. Additionally, in 1985, the first reunions of separated families and exchanges of art troupes between the two Koreas were facilitated through the Red Cross. Notably, announcer Kim Dong-gun served as the main MC during this period.

KBS special live broadcast 'Finding Separated Families' records

This documentation highlights the somber realities of the Cold War and the associated atrocities experienced in South Korea. The poignant moments of family members reuniting, embracing, and weeping not only alleviated the anguish of those separated but also acted as a significant impetus for the inaugural reunion of divided families between the South and North in September 1985. This event played a crucial role in reducing hostilities on the Korean Peninsula and conveyed a universal message advocating for peace, emphasizing the need to prevent such tragedies from recurring. Furthermore, this record stands as a significant achievement in the realm of global broadcasting history. It represents the largest television initiative aimed at reuniting separated families, with 100,952 applications submitted. Of these, 53,536 cases were featured on air, resulting in the reunion of 10,189 families. The program was supported by a dedicated team of 1,641 broadcast professionals and was aired over a span of 138 days. - UNESCO Korean National Commission

In March 2014, KBS submitted an application to the Cultural Heritage Administration to have the records of the “Finding Separated Families” program recognized as a World Memory Heritage. In collaboration with the government, KBS aimed to promote the registration of all associated records under this designation. By January 2015, the UNESCO International Advisory Committee for the Memory of the World recommended the registration, which was subsequently reviewed by a subcommittee in Abu Dhabi, UAE, from September 28 to 30, 2015.

On October 9, 2015, UNESCO officially designated the recordings from the “Finding Separated Families” program as a World Memory Heritage, alongside Korean Confucian textbooks. This achievement made KBS the second television broadcaster globally, after Germany's Berlin Brandenburg Broadcasting Company, to receive such recognition for documentary heritage. The designation encompasses not only 463 original recording tapes but also various materials such as production notebooks, applications from separated families, broadcast schedules, cue sheets, commemorative albums, and photographs, totalling 25,222 items. These documents serve as primary sources that substantiate historical facts and have been preserved in the KBS archives since their creation, while most records from central and local governments are housed in the National Archives.

Collection of records

Consequently, the Republic of Korea's total count of World Documentary Heritage items has risen to 13, and as of 2023, this number has further increased to 18, positioning the nation as the fourth highest globally. KBS prominently featured this achievement as the leading headline on News Square the following morning. The broadcast was lauded for its record-setting continuous live coverage of 453 hours and 45 minutes, which not only highlighted the anguish of war but also encouraged participation from diverse segments of society. This unique record encapsulates the tragic Cold War experiences in Korea and the suffering of families separated by division, earning its registration based on the critical criteria of authenticity, originality, and global significance, while conveying a universal message of peace against the backdrop of the Korean War.

In this instance, the registration encompassed not only the broadcast but also various documents and testimonies. This marks the second occasion where a broadcast has been the primary focus of such recognition, following the listing of the film Metropolis in 2001, which was produced in 1927. Professor Seo Kyung-ho (서경호) from Seoul National University, a former international advisory member of the Memory of the World Committee, remarked that this is indeed the first instance of a television broadcast program being included. He noted that most records associated with the Berlin Wall consist of documents and testimonies, with only a few broadcasts being recognized.

Professor Seo emphasized that the KBS program aimed at reuniting separated families is fundamentally a broadcast at its essence. He suggested that this recognition could pave the way for more broadcast programs to be considered for inclusion in the Memory of the World list in the future, thereby expanding the scope of what constitutes significant documentary heritage. This development underscores the evolving nature of heritage recognition, highlighting the importance of audio-visual media in documenting historical narratives.

The archive consists of 463 digital Betacam tapes that capture the broadcast. These recordings span from 10:15 PM on June 30, 1983, to 4 AM on November 14, extending into the early hours.

Meaning of the special broadcast

The KBS special live broadcast titled 'Searching for Separated Families' holds the distinction of being the longest continuous broadcast by KBS, spanning 138 days from June 30, 1983, to November 14, 1983. This documentary serves as a poignant reminder of the imperative to prevent future wars. It marked a significant moment in the use of mass media for promoting unification efforts post-war, engaging the public in a manner unprecedented in Korean broadcasting history. The program illuminated the consequences of the Cold War and the Korean War, bringing to light the previously obscured realities of these conflicts and their impact on South Korea.

The emotional reunions depicted in the broadcast, where family members embraced and wept, played a crucial role in alleviating the suffering of those separated by war. This heartfelt portrayal not only provided solace to affected families but also acted as a catalyst for the first official reunions between separated families from the North and South in September 1985. Ultimately, the broadcast conveyed a powerful message of peace, underscoring the necessity of preventing such tragedies from recurring in the future.

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There are issues with adding the video links; however, the entire page containing this information includes all the links. I will maintain a count of the videos to indicate how many are available for each day.

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 13/?

The thirteenth episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' focuses on notable Korean musicians who emerged during the early 20th century, a time significantly impacted by Japanese occupation. The historical records pertaining to these artists remain largely incomplete. This scarcity of thorough documentation can be attributed to the nearly century-long gap since their contributions, which predates the Korean War and resulted in the loss or inaccessibility of vital records. As a result, the limited information on this singer may render this episode a (10th) mini-sode within the broader series 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century.'

It is crucial to emphasize that the information at hand is scarce, featuring only a single image (left image) of the singer. The additional photo (right image) included pertains to another individual named Lee Ok-ran, and while their names are similar, it is uncertain whether they refer to the same person; I personally believe they are distinct individuals.

Lee Ok-ran (이옥란; 李玉蘭)

Lee Ok-ran (이옥란) was a prominent Korean vocalist known for her contributions to popular and folk music, particularly recognized as a leading female singer of Seodosori. In 1938, she performed on the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station, showcasing pieces such as "Sanbul," (山念佛) "Yeongbyeon-ga," (寧邊歌) "Jajinyeombul," (자진염불) and "Chohan-ga" (楚漢歌). During the Japanese colonial era, she recorded several popular songs with the Columbia Orchestra, including "Gisaeng Su-cheop," (기생수첩) "Kkeot Gatheun Pure Love," (겄갓흐누의 시집) and "Neuromoui Poetry Collection," (눈의 시집) all of which were released on Columbia Records in Japan. In total, she recorded six popular songs for the label.

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 12/?

The twelfth episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' focuses on notable Korean musicians who emerged during the early 20th century, a time significantly impacted by Japanese occupation. The historical records pertaining to these artists remain largely incomplete. This scarcity of thorough documentation can be attributed to the nearly century-long gap since their contributions, which predates the Korean War and resulted in the loss or inaccessibility of vital records. As a result, the limited information on this singer may render this episode a (9th) mini-sode within the broader series 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century.'

It is important to highlight that the available information is limited, and there is no image of the singer. The photo I have included may be associated with Lee Chae-seon, but the only connection appears to be their names, indicating that they may or may not represent the same individual.

Lee Chae-seon (이채선; 李彩仙)

Lee Chae/Sae-seon (이채선) was a Korean vocalist and songwriter, recognized as a gisaeng of Hanseong Gwonbeon. During the 1920s, she made notable appearances on the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station, where she performed songs sung by women. From 1929 to 1932, she continued to showcase her talent on the same station, presenting a variety of folk songs, including "Gaeseongsanyeombul," (開城山念佛) "Gaeseongnanbongga," (開城山念佛) "Geongonga," (乾坤歌) and "Gyemyeondugeo." (界面頭擧)

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 11/?

The eleventh episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' focuses on notable Korean musicians who emerged during the early 20th century, a time significantly impacted by Japanese occupation. The historical records pertaining to these artists remain largely incomplete. This scarcity of thorough documentation can be attributed to the nearly century-long gap since their contributions, which predates the Korean War and resulted in the loss or inaccessibility of vital records. As a result, the limited information on this singer may render this episode a (8th) mini-sode within the broader series 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century.'

It is important to highlight that the available information is limited, and there is no image of the singer. The photo I have included may be associated with Lee So-hee, but the only connection appears to be their names, indicating that they may or may not represent the same individual.

Lee So-hee (이소희; 李素姫)

Lee So-hee (이소희) was a Korean folk vocalist and a Jinju gisaeng during the period of Japanese occupation in Korea. She showcased her talent by performing Namdo Sori alongside Lee Ok-hyang (이옥향) and Kim Hwa-seon (김화선) at the Female Master Singers' Competition of the All-Joseon Local Entertainment Competition on May 3-4, 1938, and later participated in the Hanhaeguje Master Singers' Competition on March 18, 1940. Between 1940 and 1943, she collaborated with Im Jong-seong (임종성) and Jeong Won-seop (정원섭) on the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station (京城放送局), where they presented a variety of short songs and folk pieces, including "Pak Taryeong," "Sugungga," "Undam Punggyeong," "Jukjang Mang-hye," and changgeukjo.

Sugungga (수궁가; 水宮歌)

Sugungga is one of the five recognized pansori madang, also referred to by various names such as Tokki Taryeong, Byeolju Bujeon, Byeolju Buga, Tobyeolga, and Toebyeolga. This pansori narrates the tale of the Dragon King of the Water Palace, intertwined with the fable of the turtle and the rabbit, a narrative that has been preserved through generations and is traditionally performed by clowns. The plot centers around the Dragon King of the South Sea, who, afflicted by illness, sends Byeoljubu (Jara) to entice a rabbit for its liver. However, the clever rabbit outsmarts Jara and escapes to the outside world.

Key elements of Sugungga include the Dragon King's ailment, a Taoist priest's pulse examination, the rabbit's artistic representation, and the ensuing conflict among beasts over territory. The narrative unfolds with Jara's attempts to lure the rabbit, the rabbit's cunning evasion of the Dragon King, and its subsequent mockery of Jara. The story is rich in allegory and humour, characterized by a light and cheerful tone, which distinguishes it as one of the more accessible forms of pansori.

The text of Sugungga (序唱), particularly the version known as Toebyeolga, was compiled by Shin Jae-hyo (신재효; 申在孝), reflecting the performance style of clowns of that era. Notable segments include the preface sung to a jungmori rhythm, along with various thematic pieces such as Yongwangdeukbyeong (龍王得病: Jinyang, Jungmori, Eotmori) and Gogocheonbyeon (皐皐天邊: Jungmori), all performed in the same rhythmic style. The five-line score, recorded by Park Cho-wol (박초월) and transcribed by Kim Gi-su (김기수; 金琪洙), appears in Volume 5 of ‘Korean Music’. Contemporary performers like Kim Yeon-su (김연수; 金演洙), Jeong Gwang-su (정광수; 鄭珖秀), and Jeong Gwon-jin (정권진; 鄭權鎭) have gained recognition for their interpretations of Sugungga, with the former two continuing the legacy of Yu Seong-jun (유성준), while Jeong Gwon-jin (정권진) upholds the tradition of Gangsanje.

Pansori Sugungga Jo Sang-hyeon (조상현) A performance scene of Sugungga at the 1988 Korean Traditional Music Festival. The singer is Jo Sang-hyeon and the drummer is Kim Myeong-hwan (김명환). Sugungga is one of the five madang of pansori. (Source: Encyclopaedia of Korean Culture)

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 10/?

The tenth episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' focuses on notable Korean musicians who emerged during the early 20th century, a time significantly impacted by Japanese occupation. The historical records pertaining to these artists remain largely incomplete. This scarcity of thorough documentation can be attributed to the nearly century-long gap since their contributions, which predates the Korean War and resulted in the loss or inaccessibility of vital records. As a result, the limited information on this singer may render this episode a (7th) mini-sode within the broader series 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century.'

It is important to highlight that the information accompanying the singer's photo is limited, and the only potential link between the two images is their names, indicating that they may or may not represent the same individual.

Lee Hwa-seon (이화선; 李花仙)

Lee Hwa-seon was a prominent Korean vocalist specializing in folk music, associated with the Gwanggyo Association and Hanseong Gwonbeon. Born in 1894 in Daegu-bu, Gyeongsangbuk-do, she showcased her talents at the Family Fair in October 1915 and was 24 years old by 1918. Her repertoire included various traditional dances known as Jeongjaemu, the Gyeongseonghaengga, particularly the Gyeongseong Haengga, and Seodorichang, which features songs from the Western provinces. Notably, she participated in the 2nd Paldo Myeongchang Competition from September 21 to 23, 1931, alongside artists such as Kim Nong-wol (김농월; 金弄月), Jang San-wol (장산월; 張山月), and Kim Myeong-seon (김명선; 金明仙). Between 1932 and 1937, she was a regular performer on the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station, where she broadcasted a variety of songs, including Gasa, Gyeonggi Gayo, "Gyeongbokgung Taryeong," Dangga, "Dalgeori," "Munyeogga," and "Bangataryeong."

Gyeongbokgung Taryeong (경복궁타령; 景福宮打令)

Gyeongbokgung Taryeong is a traditional folk song originating in 1865, during the second year of King Gojong's reign, coinciding with Prince Daewongun's initiative to reconstruct Gyeongbokgung Palace, which was completed in 1872. The extensive financial investment in this project led to public criticism and satire directed at Prince Daewongun. The song features a Jajin Taryeong rhythm and is characterized by a lively melody composed in a pentatonic scale, concluding on the note 'Do.' Its melodic structure bears resemblance to the folk songs of the Nanbongga genre.

The composition is set to the Bokneun Taryeong rhythm, which follows a 6/8-time signature, and utilizes a five-note scale comprising E^b, G^b, A^b, B^b, and D^b, with E^b as the final note. This folk song is often performed as an engaging gayageum piece, aligning with the frequent taryeong jangdan rhythm. The lyrics begin with a vivid depiction of the landscape, stating, "When I open the south gate and strike the bell, / the mountains and rivers of Gyemyeongsan are bright," followed by a chorus that echoes the sound of the bell. The second verse references the specific date of the palace's construction, further embedding the song in its historical context.

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 9/?

The nineth episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' focuses on notable Korean musicians who emerged during the early 20th century, a time significantly impacted by Japanese occupation. The historical records pertaining to these artists remain largely incomplete. This scarcity of thorough documentation can be attributed to the nearly century-long gap since their contributions, which predates the Korean War and resulted in the loss or inaccessibility of vital records. As a result, the limited information on this singer may render this episode a (6th) mini-sode within the broader series 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century.'

It is important to highlight that the information accompanying the singer's photo is limited, and the only potential link between the two images is their names, indicating that they may or may not represent the same individual.

Lim Chun-hong (임춘홍; 林春紅)

It seems quite clear that these two photos feature different individuals who share the same name, which is why I decided to present them together. The details provided below pertain to the image on the left. Including this artist in the series felt somewhat unnecessary due to the limited information available about her. However, I believe it's important to highlight her, as my goal with this series is to raise awareness about artists from over a century ago.

Lim Chun-hong (임춘홍) was a prominent Korean female vocalist during the Japanese occupation of Korea. In the 1920s, she gained recognition by performing on the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station, where she showcased a variety of songs. Between 1928 and 1930, her broadcasts included notable pieces such as Gyeraek (界樂), Gyemyeondugeo (界面頭擧), Nong (弄), Urak (羽樂), Pyeon (編), and Hwangyerak (還界樂).

Urak (우락; 羽樂)

In 'Gagokwonryu' (歌曲原流), the Urak song style is characterized by Yopungtangil (堯風湯日) Hwaranchunseong (花爛春城), which conveys a sense of innocent and tranquil singing. The sijo performed as Gyerak in Namchang Gagok (男唱歌曲) is documented in 'Gagokwonryu' and describes the seasonal beauty: "In the third month of the second lunar month, swans, apricots, peaches, and lilies bloom. During the fourth, fifth, and sixth months, the lush green grass flourishes. In the seventh, eighth, and ninth months, yellow chrysanthemums and red maples blossom. By the eleventh month, the spring light in the backyard resembles plum blossoms amidst the snow."

The sijo known as the Urak of Yeochang Gagok is also recorded in 'Gagokwonryu': "The wind blows as if the earth is shifting, and rain falls heavily. I vowed to meet my beloved tonight, experiencing the weight of the judge's oath, and amidst this wind and rain, I arrived. If this is true, if it is five degrees, could it be fate?"

The geomungo song from the 19th century is documented in Seo Yu-gu's (서유구) 'Yuyeji' (遊藝志). This piece belongs to the Ujo and is part of the Nak (樂) series, featuring performances by both male and female singers. The Urak style evolved from the Sakdaeyeop (數大葉) of the late Joseon Dynasty, incorporating melodies from the Nong (弄) and Pyeon (編) series.

In the context of contemporary Namchang Gagok, Urak is identified as the ninth melody, while in Yeochang Gagok, it is designated as the eleventh melody. In Namyang Gagok, Urak is classified as the twenty-fourth melody. Currently, the Urak from Yeochang Gagok enjoys a notable level of recognition. The lyrics of Urak featured in both Namchang Gagok and Yeochang Gagok are presented below.

The lyrics from Namchang Gagok depict a sense of loss and emotional turmoil, as expressed in the lines: "I lost my fishing rod while fishing/I danced and got a bad feeling/Don't laugh, you old fool/Peach blossoms bloom in ten li/Spring is in full swing." These verses evoke imagery of nature intertwined with personal experiences, reflecting the complexities of human emotions.

Conversely, the Urak from Yeochang Gagok conveys a poignant narrative of longing and commitment, illustrated by the lines: "The wind blows as if the earth is shaking/The heavy rain falls as if pouring/I promised to meet the person I love in my heart tonight/We made a promise and swore, but how can I come in this storm/If it is true, then maybe it is fate." This lyrical content emphasizes the challenges of love amidst tumultuous circumstances, highlighting the interplay between fate and personal resolve.

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 8/?

The eighth episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' focuses on notable Korean musicians who emerged during the early 20th century, a time significantly impacted by Japanese occupation. The historical records pertaining to these artists remain largely incomplete. This scarcity of thorough documentation can be attributed to the nearly century-long gap since their contributions, which predates the Korean War and resulted in the loss or inaccessibility of vital records. As a result, the limited information on this singer may render this episode a (5th) mini-sode within the broader series 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century.'

It’s worth noting that there is minimal information provided alongside a photo of the singer, and the other three images might only connect through this single photo and their names, suggesting that they may or may not depict the same person.

Kim Yeon-wol (김연월; 金蓮月)

Kim Yeon-wol (김연월) was a vocalist known for her contributions to new folk songs, popular music, and jazz. Born in Pyongyang, South Pyongan Province in 1917, she trained as a gisaeng after completing elementary school, although details of her personal life remain scarce. She received foundational training in traditional music, which enabled her to perform as a new folk song singer while also recording numerous popular tracks. Her career began with Okeh Records in 1935, where she released her debut song, "Island Girl," followed by hits like "I Don’t Know" and "Mujeonghan Night Train." In 1936, she expanded her reach to Japan, recording under the name Hanai Otomaru (花井音丸). However, her activities as a singer seem to have ceased after 1937, suggesting a return to her previous role as a gisaeng. Her name reappeared in a 1939 article about a gisaeng symposium in Pyongyang, but no further information about her life or career is available.

Several of her songs, including "Seom Saekssi" and "I Don't Know," were featured in notable publications such as 'Jungyo' and 'Chosunmundan' in 1935. Additionally, "Nakil (落日) is Horizon" was highlighted in 'Samcheongri' the same year. Approximately ten songs, including "I Don't Know," were recorded with orchestral accompaniment, showcasing her versatility across genres. In total, nine popular songs were documented on an orchestra album, reflecting her significant impact on the music scene during her active years.

Other photo sources

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 7/?

The seventh episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' focuses on notable Korean musicians who emerged during the early 20th century, a time significantly impacted by Japanese occupation. The historical records pertaining to these artists remain largely incomplete. This scarcity of thorough documentation can be attributed to the nearly century-long gap since their contributions, which predates the Korean War and resulted in the loss or inaccessibility of vital records. As a result, the limited information on this singer may render this episode a (4th) mini-sode within the broader series 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century.'

It’s worth noting that there is minimal information provided alongside a photo of the singer, and the other two images might only connect through this single photo and their names, suggesting that they may or may not depict the same person.

Kim Wol-seon (김월선; 金月仙)

Kim Wol-seon (김월선), known for her contributions as a vocalist specializing in folk songs, was a prominent gisaeng associated with the Daejeong Kwonbeon and Joseon Kwonbeon. Born Kim Bok-sun (김복순) in 1899 in Pyeongyang-bu, Pyeongannam-do, she was 19 years old in 1918. Her artistic repertoire included various skills such as singing, gasa, calligraphy, geommu, seungmu, jeongjae, and an impressive array of 38 dance forms, along with proficiency in hyungeum and jippak.

Navigating the challenges of the 1930s, she collaborated with notable female singers like Seok Gyeong-wol (석경월), Hyeon Mae-ok (현매옥), and Choi Ok-hwa (최옥화). Her legacy was highlighted in the article "History of the Glorious Gisaengs (名妓榮華史): Joseon Gwonbeon," authored by Nangnang Gongja (浪浪公子) and published in Volume 8, Number 6 of "Samcheongri" in 1936. Between 1926 and 1938, she was a featured artist on the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station (京城放送局), where she performed various folk songs, including "Kkaturi Taryeong" (カトリアル) and "Dohwa Taryeong." (桃花打令)

Dohwa Taryeong (도화타령; 桃花打令)

The images on the left and bottom were both enhanced using AI, although the smaller size of the right image made it challenging to capture finer details. As evident in the middle photo, the original quality of these images is low, which may lead to some inaccuracies in the representation of details.

The title of an ancient folk song, also referred to as Dohwayo (桃花謠), originates from the Gyeonggi region. This piece narrates the story of the gisaeng Dohwa (桃花), who captured the attention of King Gojong (1863-1907) and gained his favour, inciting jealousy in Empress Eom (嚴妃). In a fit of envy, the Empress disfigured Dohwa's face to expel her from the court. Classified within the seonso-ri (立唱) genre, this folk song reflects the cultural narratives of its time.

Although this Gyeonggi folk song is rarely performed in contemporary settings, its melody has been preserved through the efforts of Lee Chung-seon (이충선; 李忠善). The lyrics have been recently restructured by Lee Chang-bae (이창배; 李昌培). The first verse expresses a playful admiration for peach blossoms, while the second verse celebrates the arrival of spring and the vibrant blooming of flowers, inviting listeners to partake in the joy of the season.

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 6/?

The sixth episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' examines prominent Korean musicians who gained recognition during the early 20th century, a period overshadowed by Japanese occupation. The historical documentation surrounding these artists is largely obscure, particularly concerning one specific singer, for whom only a solitary photograph exists. This lack of comprehensive records is largely due to the nearly one hundred years that have elapsed since their contributions, predating the Korean War, which led to the loss or unavailability of essential documentation. Consequently, the limited information available on this singer positions this episode as a (3rd) mini-sode within the larger series 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century.'

It is important to highlight that this information is not accompanied by a photograph of the singer, and the sole link between the image and the information is their name, indicating that they may or may not be the same individual.

Kim Ok-jin (김옥진; 金玉眞)

Kim Ok-jin is referenced solely in the Gisaeng Photo Collection, which features numerous gisaengs, various buildings, and several images of students.

Kim Ok-jin (김옥진) was a prominent vocalist specializing in folk and popular songs, associated with the Daejeong-gwon-beon and Joseon-gwon-beon. Her primary instrument was the gayageum. Born in 1904 in Gyeongseong-bu, she was notably active in her craft by the age of 14 in 1918. Her artistic repertoire encompassed various forms, including song, gasa, sijo, Gyeongseo Japga, Jeongjae, six distinct dance styles, and Western dance.

Throughout her career, Kim Ok-jin recorded numerous popular and folk songs, including "Kkot Taryeong" and "Yeokgeum Nanbongga," in collaboration with Go Jae-deok (고재덕; 高載德) (piri) and the Japanese Vikta Orchestra during the 1930s. Additionally, around ten folk songs, such as "Guri Taryeong," were recorded with Lee Jung-sun (이중선; 李中仙) for Sierron Records. From 1928 to 1935, she was featured on the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station, performing popular pieces like "Ipalcheongchung" and various folk songs, including "Monggeumpo Taryeong." Her contributions were recognized in the "Joseon·Hansung·Jongno Samgwonbeon (三券番) Gisaeng Yedo (藝道) Gaepyeong (慨評)" published in 1936, and she recorded several folk songs from the southern provinces, such as “Yukjabaegi,”  “Heungtaeryeong,” and “Seongjupuri,” during the same decade.

Heungtaeryeong (흥타령; 興打令)

One of the songs that she collaborated with.

The folk song associated with Chungcheong Province (忠淸道民謠), known as "Cheonan Samgeori," (天安三巨里) is also recognized within the context of Gyeonggi Province (京畿民謠). While its designation as "Cheonan Samgeori" aligns it with Chungcheong, the song "Heungtaryeong" is frequently regarded as a representative of Seoul's folk music. The rhythmic structure of this piece is characterized by the gutgeori jangdan, leading to some classification debates; its similarities to Gyeonggi folk songs further complicate its regional attribution.

Historically, "Heungtaryeong" is believed to have emerged as a satirical commentary on the corrupt governance of Jo Seong-ha (趙成夏) during the late Joseon Dynasty, gaining popularity following the Gabo Reform (甲午更張). The song is structured around a pentatonic scale (C, E'b, F, G, B'b), concluding on the note C, with its musical notation documented in Volume 7 of “Korean Music.” Its vibrant melody is often performed on the gayageum or as part of instrumental ensembles, frequently serving as an accompaniment for traditional folk dances.

The bold lower case 'b's mean a flat like shown above it means a E flat and a B flat.

To differentiate it from similarly titled songs in other regions, the folk song "Heungtaryeong" is referred to as "Cheonan Samgeori." The lyrics of the first verse highlight the imagery of willow trees swaying freely, while the chorus celebrates the beauty of the stars. Subsequent verses reflect on the ephemeral nature of wealth and glory, suggesting that they are merely dreams, and evoke a sense of hope tied to the symbolic flying of the Taegeukgi on Baekdu Mountain, which heralds the arrival of spring.

This folk song, originating from the Southern Province, is also known as "Nalgae Taryeong" and is part of a broader category of Heungtaryeong songs. There are three distinct types: Gyeonggi Heungtaryeong, represented by "Cheonan Samgeori," Seodo Heungtaryeong, known as "Gamnaegi," and Namdo Heungtaryeong. While these variations share similar lyrical themes, they are characterized by different melodies, with "Heungtaryeong" typically performed in a Jungmori rhythm and Yukjabaegi melody, conveying a sense of sorrow.

The song's title, akin to "Heung Taryeong" in other areas, derives from its refrain, although its lyrics diverge significantly from those of "Namdo Heung Taryeong." It appears to have gained popularity during the Japanese colonial period, with verses lamenting the passage of time and the fleeting nature of youth. The imagery of swallows soaring high and dancing in the waves further emphasizes the song's themes of transience and beauty, encapsulating a poignant reflection on life.

The song, originating in the 1920s, is recognized by various titles, including "Gyeongseong Heungtaeryeong" (Gyeongseong) (興打令) and "Seoul Heungtaryeong." Characterized by a 6/8-time signature, it employs a four-note scale consisting of A, B, D, and E, concluding on D. The structure features a refrain that alternates between a soloist and a chorus, with the opening verse posing questions of identity and asserting the singer's name as Jo Ja-ryong (조자룡), followed by a refrain that emphasizes the superiority of "heung."

This oral folk song has been documented across multiple regions, including Daejeon, Yangpyeong, and Seoul, with particular emphasis on the Gimje area. The lyrics, often derived from "Cheonan Samgeori," have been adapted to reflect personal sentiments, as illustrated by lines expressing a longing for connection and the desire to share emotions. The song captures the essence of communal experiences and the interplay of individual feelings within a broader cultural context.

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 5/?

The fifth episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' examines prominent Korean musicians who gained recognition during the early 20th century, a period overshadowed by Japanese occupation. The historical documentation surrounding these artists is largely obscure, particularly concerning one specific singer, for whom only a solitary photograph exists. This lack of comprehensive records is largely due to the nearly one hundred years that have elapsed since their contributions, predating the Korean War, which led to the loss or unavailability of essential documentation. Consequently, the limited information available on this singer positions this episode as a (2nd) mini-sode within the larger series 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century.'

It is important to highlight that this information is not accompanied by a photograph of the singer, and the sole link between the image and the information is their name, indicating that they may or may not be the same individual.

Kim Chae-woon (김채운)

Kim Chae-woon is referenced solely in the Gisaeng Photo Collection, which features numerous gisaengs, various buildings, and several images of students.

Kim Chae-woon (김채운), also known as Kim Sae-un (金彩雲) or alternatively spelled as Kim Chae-un, was a prominent vocalist specializing in folk music during the Joseon era, associated with the Gisaeng of Gwonbeon and Hanseong Gwonbeon (Also known as Joseon Kwonbeon). In the 1920s, she gained recognition through her performances on the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station (경성방송국; 京城放送局), where she showcased various musical forms, including Gyeongseong Jwachang and Gyeongseong Japga. Between 1926 and 1932, she collaborated with fellow artists Han Seong-jun (한성준; 韓成俊) and Ji Yong-gu to perform a diverse repertoire that featured gayageum byeongchang, gayageum Sanjo, and numerous folk songs, such as "Gogocheonbyeon" (고고천변; 皐皐天邊) and "Baettaragi." Notably, her recordings of "Seodo Sokyo" (경기좌창; 京畿座唱) and "Kite-catching Girl," accompanied by orchestral arrangements, were released by the Japanese Victor record label. Additionally, she participated in the 2nd Paldo Myeongchang Competition (팔도명창대회; 八道名唱大會) alongside Kim So-hyang (김소향; 金小香), Kim Su-jeong (김수정; 金水晶), and Kim Yeo-ran (김여란; 金如蘭) from September 21 to 23, 1931, and continued to appear on Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station throughout the 1930s, where she performed gayageum sanjo on multiple occasions.

Gogocheonbyeon (고고천변; 皐皐天邊)

One of the songs that she collaborated with.

Gogocheonbyeon Album (Park Joong-geun's composition)

The song 'Gogocheonbyeon' (皐皐天邊) originates from the pansori performance 'Sugungga' (水宮歌), where the character Byeoljubu emerges onto land and expresses his observations of the surrounding landscape. This piece is frequently performed as 'Heoduga' (虛頭歌) and is recognized as a significant and widely appreciated lyric within various renditions of 'Sugungga.' Over time, 'Gogocheonbyeon' has evolved, taking on multiple forms such as a brief song, lyrics, a miscellaneous piece, a gramophone recording, and a folk song. Notably, the esteemed singer Song Man-gap (송만갑) is renowned for his interpretations of 'Gogocheonbyeon,' having recorded it multiple times alongside 'Byeoljubu Taryeong.' Other notable artists who have also recorded this song include Im Bang-ul (임방울), Kim Chang-hwan (김창환), Kim Hae-seon (김해선), Gib Chae-yeon (깁채연), Kim Mae-hyang (김매향), Ju Ran-hyang (주란향), and Kim Yeon-su (김연수).

Detail about the album

"Gogocheonbyeon" is an extensive composition that integrates the recurring phrase "Gogocheonbyeon Ilryunhong" with lyrics drawn from the "Saetaryeong," "Yusanga," and "Manhakcheonbong" series. The song typically commences with the line "Gogocheonbyeon Ilryunhong" (杲杲天邊日輪紅), depicting imagery such as the cyclical nature of Bujang (扶桑) and the return of Yanggok's (陽谷) Jajin. It also evokes scenes of a fishing village and the transformation of Nohwa into snow, alongside references to Buyeong (浮萍) as water.

Notably, the reading version of "Gogocheonbyeon" features an extended narrative at its conclusion, which elaborates on specific details and facts. This addition reflects the dedication of the creators to enhance the work's completeness as a reading material, aiming to provide a richer and more luxurious experience for the audience.

The lyrics of "Gogocheonbyeon" primarily depict mountainous landscapes and are associated with the "Yeongsan-ga" series of diverse songs, as well as the independent genre of "Yeongsan." (靈山) This song is categorized within the "Yeongsan-ga" (令山歌) collection, which celebrates natural beauty while reflecting the nuances of life's transitions. A notable feature of "Gogocheonbyeon," particularly for Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station, is its classification as a short song. During the 1930s and 1940s, numerous artists performed "Gogocheonbyeon," and such brief compositions were often transformed into miscellaneous songs, eventually becoming part of the folk music tradition.

As a folk song, "Gogocheonbyeon" was predominantly gathered from the southern regions where pansori enjoyed significant popularity. This context is integral to its identification as a southern folk song, highlighting the cultural and regional influences that shaped its development and dissemination.

Features & Significance

'Gogocheonbyeon' exemplifies a succinct musical form characterized by its refined essence. This piece, imbued with a distinct Yeongsan quality, upholds the dignity associated with aristocratic traditions, distinguishing itself from other pansori narratives and shorter compositions that may lack such decorum. The song's performance, utilizing the relatively light Jungjungmori jangdan, creates a dynamic yet reverent ambiance. 'Gogocheonbyeon' has been interpreted in various formats, including original pansori narratives, short songs, and folk adaptations, reflecting its versatile nature. This adaptability highlights its significance in bridging high culture with popular culture, although the precise origins of 'Gogocheonbyeon' remain a topic of debate.

Recent studies indicate that short songs, previously recognized primarily as components of pansori, were performed independently as a vocal genre known as 'Yeongsan' prior to their incorporation into pansori heuduga. This revelation prompts a re-evaluation of the classification of dan-ga, suggesting it may not merely be a subgenre of pansori as traditionally believed. Such findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the evolution of Korean musical forms and their cultural implications.

References

Kwon Oh-kyung (권오경) from Busan University of Foreign Studies has contributed significantly to the field of Korean language and literature. His research includes a comprehensive study on Gogocheonbyeon, published in Eomunhak, which explores its existence and functions within the context of Korean literary traditions.

In addition to his scholarly articles, Kwon has collaborated on various publications, including a single-volume collection co-authored with Kim Jin-young (김진영) and Lee Ki-hyung (이기형), as well as the complete works of Rabbit Tales, which spans five volumes. His academic pursuits also encompass the introduction of Korean music, particularly focusing on Yeongsan and Danga, as detailed in a publication by Lee Hye-gu (이혜구) from Seoul National University Press.

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 4/?

The fourth episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' focuses on notable Korean musicians who rose to prominence in the early 20th century, a time marked by Japanese occupation. The historical records concerning these artists remain largely enigmatic, as there is minimal information available about one particular singer, accompanied by only a single photograph that may depict her. This scarcity of documentation is primarily attributed to the passage of nearly a century since their contributions, predating the Korean War, which resulted in the loss or inaccessibility of vital records. Given the limited information on this singer, this episode can be regarded as a mini-sode within the broader series 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century.'

It is important to highlight that this information is not accompanied by a photograph of the singer, and the sole link between the image and the information is their name, indicating that they may or may not be the same individual.

Kim Nan-ok (김난옥)

Kim Nan-ok is referenced solely in the Gisaeng Photo Collection, which features numerous gisaengs, various buildings, and several images of students.

Kim Nan-ok (김난옥), also known as Kim Lan Yu (金蘭玉), was a prominent vocalist specializing in Changgeuk, a traditional Korean theatrical form. She was affiliated with the Joseon Kwonbeon (朝鮮券番) gisaeng and was particularly skilled in Joseon dance. Her recognition began with her introduction in the "Joseon, Hanseong, and Jongno Samgwonbeon (三券番) Gisaeng Yedo (藝道) Gaepyeong," published in the eighth volume of "Samcheongri" in 1936. Notably, she performed Namdo Sori alongside Lee So-hyang (이소향) and Seong San-hoju (성산호주) during the Female Master Singers' Competition at the All-Joseon Local Entertainment Competition held from May 3 to 4, 1938. Additionally, she participated as a gisaeng in the changgeuk "Chunhyangjeon," presented by the Joseon Vocal Music Research Society (朝鮮聲樂研究會) from October 7 to 16, 1939, and also appeared in the changgeuks "Chunhyangjeon" and "Simcheongjeon" during the same period. In 1930, she gained further prominence by performing on the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station, where she showcased a variety of songs, including the popular "Falling Flowers Flowing Water" and the folk song "Yangryuga."

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The Lost 30 Years - Seol Woon-do/ Jin Bo-ra/ Na Hoon-a, etc. (잃어버린 30년 - 설운도/ 진보라/ 나훈아 등) - Episode 11/35 (Pt. 3)

This text serves as part three of the Korean album 'The Lost 30 Years,' featuring artists such as Seol Woon-do, Jin Bo-ra, and Na Hoon-a. The focus will be on the events surrounding the broadcast that took place in 1983, which inspired the creation of this album. For a comprehensive understanding, please refer to part one, which details the album's context, the broadcast's background, program planning, and content. The live broadcast commenced on June 30, 1983, followed by an emergency broadcast relay from July 1 to July 10, 1983, and continued with regular programming from July 15, 1983, to November 14, 1983.

Moderators

Dr. Yoo Cheol-jong, born in 1932 in Jumunjin-eup, Gangneung-si, Gangwon-do, initially worked as a corporate HRD training instructor rather than as a KBS announcer. His strong presence as a host of educational programs often led to confusion with announcers, similar to broadcaster Lee Sang-byeok, who also faced such misconceptions after his long tenure as an MC for shows like Morning Plaza and TV Love. Lee Sang-byeok, who had experience as a magazine reporter and entertainment critic, was selected to co-host the morning show 'Studio 830' alongside announcer Lee Ji-yeon. Initially hesitant to take on the role of MC for a show focused on separated families, she was ultimately persuaded by the producer to embrace a more relaxed hosting style, which allowed her to connect with guests and viewers on a personal level. This approach not only alleviated the anxiety of ordinary guests unfamiliar with broadcasting but also fostered an emotional bond with the audience, as her genuine reactions to poignant moments often resonated deeply, eliciting sympathy and engagement.

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Lee Ji-yeon, an announcer born in 1947 in Galsan-dong, Iksan-si, Jeollabuk-do, is married to KBS voice actor Kim Tae-yeon. Although her primary affiliation was with KBS, she is not classified as a KBS announcer. She began her career at Iri Christian Broadcasting Station, now known as Jeonbuk CBS, in 1969, serving as an announcer until 1979, and later declared herself a freelancer following the media merger in 1980. In the early broadcasting days, there were instances where Jeonju KBS or Daegu KBS were mistakenly referred to as Daegu Christian Broadcasting. By 1983, she was hosting Studio 830 as a freelance announcer. Notably, she shares her name with the current KBS announcer Lee Ji-yeon and is the same age as broadcaster Lee Sang-byeok, her father. Additionally, she is a member of a separated family, having lost her older brother during the war; he later became a people's actor in North Korea, and they reunited in Seoul during the 2000 South-North separated family reunion.

The reunion of separated families often evokes profound emotions, exemplified by the poignant encounter between announcer Lee Ji-yeon and her brother in North Korea. During her appearance on the MBN program "Agungi," Lee Ji-yeon recounted that her brother, an only son who had been conscripted into the volunteer army during the Korean War, went missing and later became a prominent actor in North Korea. Their meeting occurred during the 2000 inter-Korean family reunion, which began with the customary display of regime propaganda. As the reunion progressed, her brother noticed a sprinkler in the hall, mistaking it for a surveillance camera, which prevented him from expressing his true feelings. Upon learning its actual purpose, he was overcome with emotion, inquiring about their parents' well-being and reflecting on the shock they must have felt at his disappearance. Lee Ji-yeon remarked that seeing her brother felt like a resurrection of their deceased father.

Lee Ji-yeon's dedication to reuniting separated families has earned her multiple accolades, including the Order of Civil Merit. She has taken on various roles as a master of ceremonies, notably as the early host for KBS Open Concert. Currently, she is a seasoned MC focusing on programs for older adults, including "Start a Wonderful Life" on KBS 3rd Radio and "Lee Ji-yeon's Luxury Treasure Chest" on NS Home Shopping. Notably, she holds the distinction of being the oldest active female freelance announcer in the industry.

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Kim Dong-geon, an announcer born in 1938, hails from Sariwon in Hwanghae Province, which informs his empathetic approach when interviewing separated families from the region. Following Korea's liberation, he relocated to South Korea, where he graduated from Yonsei University and began his broadcasting career at Dong-A Broadcasting System (DBS) in 1963, later moving to Tongyang Broadcasting System (TBC) in 1968 and then to KBS in 1973. This transition to KBS occurred with the establishment of the public corporation, rather than during the media merger of 1980. He became a prominent KBS announcer throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, notably hosting the long-running program 'Let's Meet at 11' for nearly a decade and KBS Music Stage for 30 years, with a seven-year break. In the mid-1990s, he transitioned to a freelance role, passing the Music Stage hosting duties to Jeon In-seok in 2003, but returned to the program in 2010. Additionally, he has a notable history of hosting the Miss Korea Pageant for 31 years and participated in the 2020 Modern Korea Broadcast Day special, reflecting on the 'Search for Separated Families' broadcast.

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Shin Eun-kyung, a prominent announcer, was born in 1958 and began her career at KBS as the eighth announcer in 1981. She quickly gained recognition for her Western-style appearance and became the weekday anchor for KBS's 9 o'clock News alongside reporter Choi Dong-ho. Her notable career took off in 1983 when she hosted "Finding Separated Families," and she, along with MBC's Baek Ji-yeon, played a significant role in shaping the presence of female announcers in the broadcasting industry during the 1980s. In 1986, she continued her tenure as the 9 o'clock News host under Kim Gwang-il and Park Sung-beom, eventually passing the weekday anchor role to Yoon Geum-ja in 1987, after which she focused on weekend anchoring until 1992. Following her studies abroad in 1993, she married Park Sung-beom, a fellow KBS anchor, in 1995 and later transitioned into business and politics.

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Lee Kang-ja, an announcer, graduated from Ewha Womans University with a degree in English Language and Literature. She began her career as the first announcer at DTV, which later became TBC, in 1964. However, after marrying Jeon Hang, a member of the 'Sesam Trio,' in 1971, she chose to leave her broadcasting career to become a housewife. In 1983, she resumed her professional life as a freelance reporter for a program and . Following her immigration to Paraguay in 1985, she later relocated to Argentina and eventually settled in the United States, where she served as a TV anchor for the New York Korean Broadcasting Company. In 2005, she returned briefly to her hometown of Wando during a visit to her home country.

Other Announcers

It can be confidently asserted that nearly all prominent mid-tier hosts, including KBS, TBC, and DBS, were introduced.

Son Seok-gi, an announcer born in 1952 in Yeongdong, Chungcheongbuk-do, began his career at Dong-A Broadcasting System (DBS) in 1976, but transitioned to KBS following media consolidation. He holds the distinction of being the first announcer in South Korea to graduate from the Department of Theater and Film at Chung-Ang University. In 1991, he became a founding member of SBS at its inception, contributing to various programs, including sports broadcasting and Morning Wide. He advanced to the position of team leader for the SBS announcer team in 1998 and later served as the deputy director in 2000.

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Announcer Hwang In-woo joined KBS as its eighth announcer in 1981 and worked alongside announcer Shin Eun-kyung. Presently, she serves as a professor at Sungshin Women's University and the SBS Broadcasting Academy, making her a recognizable figure among aspiring announcers. Following a particular event, the visibility of Son Seok-gi and Hwang In-woo diminished, leaving only their voices to resonate. It can be argued that these two individuals endured significant challenges due to the demanding nature of broadcasting for separated families.

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Announcer Jeong Mi-hong is recognized for her pro-Park and conservative views that gained prominence in the 2010s. However, it is important to note that she served as the spokesperson for the Democratic Party's Cho Soon camp during the first nationwide local elections in 1995, suggesting that her political orientation was not conservative at that time. Over the years, she developed her career in broadcasting, ultimately becoming a prominent announcer, notably co-hosting the opening ceremony of the 1988 Seoul Olympics alongside announcer Lee Chang-ho on KBS 2TV.

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Park Yong-ho, an announcer, is the father of KBS announcer Park Tae-won. In the 1990s, he served as the host for KBS's 1st Radio Evening News, the 7 o'clock News Network on KBS 1TV, and the 6 o'clock My Hometown program, before departing from KBS in 1999. He briefly ventured into politics after being elected during the 16th National Assembly election in his hometown of Incheon Ganghwa-gun; however, his election was annulled due to allegations of violating the Public Official Election Act, which curtailed his brief tenure as a National Assembly member.

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Won Jong-bae is a prominent news anchor associated with Dongyang Broadcasting, who transitioned to KBS following a media merger, similar to Son Seok-gi. He gained recognition as the host of KBS 2TV's educational program 'Love Broadcast' until the 1970s and is fondly remembered by individuals born in the 1980s and early 1990s for his role in the scholarship quiz. This period coincided with the quiz's relocation from MBC to EBS; however, prior to this, he also hosted KBS 2TV's 'Middle School Quiz' and the 1989 New Year's special 'Cartoon Movie Parade,' making him a well-known figure among audiences from the 70s and 80s.

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Hwang In-yong, a prominent former announcer at Dongyang Broadcasting, gained recognition for his role as the last voice on the program To You Who Forgot the Night, which marked the final broadcast of the station before its closure due to media consolidation. Following the merger, he briefly joined KBS, where he continued to host the radio show 'Hello, Hwang In-yong, Kang Bu-ja/Kim Mi-hwa,' a program he had previously presented on TBC. After the democratization of South Korea in 1987, he transitioned to a freelance career, primarily working with MBC on the program 'The Story of the World.' Currently, he is nearly retired from broadcasting, managing a music appreciation room in Heyri, Paju, while occasionally taking on narration projects.

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Actor Kang Bu-ja has been a prominent figure in broadcasting since the TBC era, co-hosting the morning radio show "Hello, I am Hwang In-yong and Kang Bu-ja" alongside announcer Hwang In-yong, as well as the program "Finding Separated Families," which highlights the show's significant popularity.

Anchor Song Ji-heon, who began her career at Dong-A Broadcasting, transitioned to KBS following its merger, where she took on the role of host for morning information programs like "Live Nationwide Now," later focusing primarily on current affairs programming.

Additional announcers include Yoo Ae-ri, Kim Hee-seong, Song Kyung-hee, Kang Sung-hee, Kim Sang-jun, Park Young-woong, Lee Jeong-bu, and Kim Hye-ja.

Local Broadcasting Stations

Local broadcasting stations in South Korea feature a diverse array of personnel across various cities. In Busan, notable figures include Jo Gye-sik, Kim Byeong-rae, Go Gwang-soo, Kim Woon-dae, Jeon Ok-soo, Wang Jong-geun, Kang Mi-ran, and Jeong Dong-jin. Daegu's station is represented by Jeong Jeong-hwa, Lee Dong-geon, Kim Young-sook, Lee Sang-hak, and Kang Sun-ae. Gwangju's broadcasting team consists of Lee Jae-bong, Yoon Dong-won, Choi Gyeong-cheon, Kim Si-jeong, and Song Hye-kyung. In Daejeon, the key personnel are Park Jong-kwon, Kang Hee-soo, Lee Jong-tae, Kim Jin-won, and Shin Hyeon-ok. Jeonju's station features Lee Jong-seop, Park Kyung-jik, Jo Seong-jin, Son Hye-won, Lee Jeong-ran, and Moon Yeong-rye. Cheongju's broadcasting staff includes Lee Young-sook, Oh Han-shin, Lee Jin-wook, Kim Hong-sik, Noh Young-sil, and Jo Young-sook. Chuncheon is represented by Lee Ju-byeok, Kim Sang-geun, Kim In-ju, Shin Hye-kyung, and Kang Bu-gil, while Gangneung's team comprises Kwon Won-tae, Yang Seong-jun, Kim Myeong-hee, and Kim Jeong-i. Lastly, Jeju's station includes Kim Seon-dong, Kim Beom-gyu, Kim Dong-hoon, and Jeong Ok-sun.

Broadcast List

KBS undertook the digitization of all recordings from the program Searching for Separated Families to enhance accessibility for descendants and the global audience, initiating this process on March 5, 2014, by uploading the content to YouTube. Subsequently, in October 2015, this initiative was recognized as a UNESCO Memory of the World.

The Special Feature is scheduled for June 30, 1983, to July 1, 1983, from 10:15 PM to 2:30 AM. The event will be moderated by Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon, with auxiliary support from Hwang In-woo and Son Seok-gi at the Public Hall, Jeong Mi-hong at the Public Hall, and Park Yong-ho operating the broadcast vehicle. Regional offices will be represented by Kang Hee-soo in Daejeon, Lee Ju-byeok in Chuncheon, Kim Seon-dong in Jeju, and Lee Dong-geon in Daegu.

Video Links - #1 #2 #3 #4

On July 1, 1983, from 10:15 PM to 7:40 AM, the event was moderated by Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon, with auxiliary support from Won Jong-bae and Yoo Ae-ri in the Central Hall. Additional participants included Kim Hee-seong, Hwang In-woo, Son Seok-gi, Jeong Mi-hong, and Park Yong-ho, all stationed in the Public Hall. Regional representatives were Jeon Ok-su from Busan, Lee Jae-bong and Song Hye-kyung from Gwangju, Kang Mi-ran from Busan, Lee Sang-hak from Daegu, Lee Jeong-ran from Jeonju, Jong-Kwon Park from Daejeon, Kim Sang-geun from Chuncheon, Lee Young-sook and Oh Han-shin from Cheongju, Kwon Won-tae from Gangneung, Kim Beom-gyu and Noh Young-sil from Jeju, as well as Shin Hyeon-ok from Daejeon, Park Kyung-jik from Jeonju, and Shin Hye-kyung from Chuncheon.

Video Links - #1 ,#2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9

Day 2, dated July 2, 1983, took place on a Saturday from 8:30 AM to 7:30 PM, with moderators Kim Dong-gun and Shin Eun-kyung overseeing the proceedings. The auxiliary progress was managed by Song Kyung-hee, Hwang In-woo, and Lee Jeong-bu in the Public Hall, while Kang Seong-hee and Kim Hye-ja contributed alongside Jeong Do-yeong in the Central Hall. Regional representatives included Kim Woon-dae from Busan, Song Hye-kyung from Gwangju, Jo Won-mi from Daejeon, Lee Dong-geon from Daegu, Oh Han-shin from Cheongju, Kang Hee-soo from Daejeon, Jeon Ok-su from Busan, and Kim Young-sook from Daegu.

Video Links - #1 ,#2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11

Day 3, dated July 3, 1983. The event took place on a Sunday from 9:30 a.m. to 7:20 p.m., with Yoo Cheol-jong serving as the moderator and Lee Ji-yeon assisting. Hwang In-woo and Son Seok-gi contributed as auxiliary progress coordinators in the public hall.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10

Day 4, dated July 4, 1983, Monday, from 9:00 AM to 9:00 PM, with moderators Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11, #12

Day 5, dated July 5, 1983, Tuesday, from 9:00 AM to 8:20 PM, with moderators Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, #11

Day 6, dated July 6, 1983, Wednesday to July 7, Thursday, from 10:15 PM to 6:20 AM, with moderators Kim Dong-gun and Shin Eun-kyung.

Video Links - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8

Day 7, dated on July 9, 1983, Saturday, from 10:15 PM to 8:00 AM, the moderators were Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon. Subsequently, on July 10, 1983, Sunday, the session continued from 9:00 AM to 7:20 PM, with Kim Dong-gun and Shin Eun-kyung serving as moderators.

Video Links July 9th - #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10 Video Links July 10th - #11, #12, #13, #14, #15. #16, #17, #18, #19, #20

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There are issues with adding the video links; however, the entire page containing this information includes all the links. I will maintain a count of the videos to indicate how many are available for each day.

[cosmosbeelover]

The Lost 30 Years - Seol Woon-do/ Jin Bo-ra/ Na Hoon-a, etc. (잃어버린 30년 - 설운도/ 진보라/ 나훈아 등) - Episode 11/35 (Pt. 2)

This text serves as part two of the Korean album 'The Lost 30 Years,' featuring artists such as Seol Woon-do, Jin Bo-ra, and Na Hoon-a. The focus will be on the events surrounding the broadcast that took place in 1983, which inspired the creation of this album. For a comprehensive understanding, please refer to part one, which details the album's context, the broadcast's background, program planning, and content. The live broadcast commenced on June 30, 1983, followed by an emergency broadcast relay from July 1 to July 10, 1983, and continued with regular programming from July 15, 1983, to November 14, 1983.

It is important to issue a warning prior to engaging with this episode, as it will address the subject of self-exit.

The stories of the performers

Numerous emotional moments characterized the live broadcast, leading to various incidents, including instances where cast members fainted and announcers struggled to contain their tears. Some cast members sought one another using their Japanese names, reflecting their experiences of having lived in Japan before returning after liberation. Additionally, there were episodes highlighting the challenges faced by many children who returned to Joseon without any proficiency in Korean, making their adjustment particularly difficult.

The siblings who shouted “Manse”

The broadcast on July 3 presents the narrative of Mr. Kwak Man-young (곽만영), highlighting the poignant reunion of his family. Originally residing in Sinmak-eup, Seoheung-gun, Hwanghae-do, the family faced significant upheaval around 1947-1948 when the communist regime seized their property. The eldest sister, Kwak Tam-sil (곽담실), was the first to defect to South Korea, settling in Yongsan-gu. Following the onset of the Korean War, the entire family fled to South Korea. During the January 4th Retreat, they crossed the Han River Bridge and boarded a train at Yeongdeungpo Station. However, due to the destruction of the Han River Bridge shortly after the war began, train services were limited to areas south of the river, leading to a prolonged separation with no communication thereafter. The family's later narrative reveals that two siblings had unfortunately passed away prior to the reunion.

The reunion scene is frequently highlighted as a poignant symbol in discussions surrounding the program "Finding Separated Families." During this emotional moment, the younger brother, Kwak Man-young, expressed his joy with tears, exclaiming, "Mom and Dad are both alive! Thank you, long live KBS!" This phrase, while not the official title of the Korean Broadcasting System, reflects the public's affection for the network, as he also proclaimed, "Long live the Republic of Korea!" This heartfelt declaration was prominently featured in the following morning's broadcast. The scene encapsulated the essence of 1983, illustrating themes of familial bonds, the joy of reunion, the revelation of parental survival, the oppressive nature of the North Korean regime, and a celebration of the Republic of Korea, which was often leveraged for propaganda during the Fifth Republic. Following the end of the dictatorship in 1987, the interpretation of this scene shifted significantly.

2013, Mr. Kwak Man-young revisited this poignant memory during a broadcast commemorating the 30th anniversary of "Finding Separated Families," alongside Dr. Yoo Cheol-jong (유철종) and announcer Lee Ji-yeon (이지연), reflecting on that pivotal moment in his life. At the age of 79, he shared his memories, although, in contrast to the Heo siblings, he had made fewer appearances in KBS's retrospective broadcasts. This limited visibility highlights the varying degrees of public engagement among individuals involved in the program, as well as the evolving narrative surrounding the reunions over the decades.

"You're not Kim! You're Heo!"

"When I was little, I left you at the barber shop." / "Yes, that's right." "It's cloudy." / "That's right." "(Crying) Oppa!!!!! Now I have no regrets even if I die, Oppa!!! " In the middle, you can hear your brother Heo Hyeon-cheol shouting “Thank you!!!”, but it is buried and hard to hear.

The phrase 'Finding Separated Families' evokes the poignant reunion of siblings Heo Hyeon-cheol (허현철) and Heo Hyeon-ok (허현옥) (Kim Jeong-ae) that took place at approximately 11 AM on July 5th. This moment is characterized by the confirmation of local station connections and includes both interview segments and the direct reunion itself. Notably, this broadcast was also featured in the film Ode to My Father. In this emotional encounter, the younger sister immediately recognized her brother upon seeing him, even before they exchanged details about their lives. Her instinctive reaction was to softly exclaim, "It's you, brother!", highlighting the deep familial bond that transcends time and separation.

The Heo siblings, orphaned by the war, faced a tragic separation after being placed in an orphanage. The younger sister, Heo Hyeon-ok, was adopted by a family operating a barbershop, where she assumed the name 'Kim Jeong-ae' (김정애). In contrast, her older brother, Heo Hyeon-cheol, remained in the orphanage. Their paths diverged when Heo Hyeon-cheol sought out the barbershop, only to discover it had relocated, leading to decades of lost contact. Over time, Heo Hyeon-ok forgot her original name, living in a state of disconnection from her past, while Heo Hyeon-cheol, despite his own struggles, retained memories of Daejeon and wandered its streets in search of his sister.

The emotional turmoil of Heo Hyeon-cheol was poignantly captured when he lamented, "You're not Kim, you're Heo! You have to know your name!" His concern transcended mere genealogical interest; it stemmed from a lifelong quest to locate his sister, hindered by her name change. This situation reflects a broader issue faced by families separated by war, as exemplified by Kim Bok-yeon (김복연) and Jeon Hak-cheol (전학철), who were unable to reunite due to their son's name being altered to 'Maeng Cheol-su' (맹철수). This name change could have resulted from a mix-up during his early separation from his mother or administrative errors in the chaos of war. Ultimately, the siblings' reunion occurred in 1993, a decade after their initial separation.

The poignant declaration, "Everyone should know how miserable war is!" continues to resonate in broadcasts aimed at reuniting separated families, with the image of an elderly man weeping remaining particularly impactful. This emotional moment underscores the enduring consequences of conflict on familial bonds.

The reunion was facilitated through a connection between local stations in Jeju and Daejeon. On the inaugural day of the broadcast, Mr. Heo Hyeon-cheol rushed to the local station upon seeing Ms. Kim Jeong-ae (Heo Hyeon-ok) featured on screen. The initial connection to Jeju Broadcasting and the subsequent introduction of Heo Hyeon-ok's narrative occurred the following day. Although the local station managed to reconnect after four days for a brief reunion, time limitations restricted the sharing of stories, leading to a poignant moment when the microphone was passed to Jeju guests. Unfortunately, the introduction of their stories was interrupted at KBS Seoul headquarters, necessitating another connection between Jeju and Daejeon for the two to meet. During the live broadcast, the producer incorporated war footage and somber background music, evoking a powerful emotional response. Lee Ji-yeon, the host and a member of a separated family herself, was unable to contain her emotions and left the stage in tears, creating a lasting memory that symbolizes the deep connections between relatives.

The siblings recounted that the younger brother, residing on Jeju Island, took a flight the following day, arriving at Gimpo Airport in Seoul before taking a taxi to Daejeon. Although there was an airfield named Cheongju near Daejeon, it functioned as a military base at that time and was not officially designated as Cheongju International Airport until 1997. At 5:40 PM, KBS Daejeon Broadcasting Station, then known simply as 'Daejeon Broadcasting Station,' was elevated to KBS Daejeon Broadcasting Station on December 8, 1986, following a reorganization within KBS. The headquarters was initially situated in Mok-dong, Jung-gu, before relocating to Manyeon-dong, Seo-gu, in 1998, where Dunsan New Town is located. In the 2020 special documentary 'We Together, That Memories,' Mr. Heo Hyeon-cheol reminisced about the old headquarters, which has since been converted into a nursing hospital, although the transmission tower remains. The emotional reunion occurred in front of the building, where, amidst the citizens' applause, the older brother opened the door before the younger brother's car had fully stopped, leading to an embrace filled with tears. The older brother reportedly wept, exclaiming, "What is this? Who should I tell this good news to? I have to tell my parents!" which deeply moved those present.

The Heo siblings enjoyed a fulfilling life and regularly featured on KBS's program "Searching for Separated Families." In May 2013, they participated in a special broadcast celebrating the 30th anniversary of the show, alongside Dr. Yoo Cheol-jong and announcer Lee Ji-yeon, reflecting on their experiences. Notably, the recording studio for this episode was the same public hall that hosted the original broadcast three decades prior.

As of 2019, Heo Hyeon-cheol, the elder brother, was employed at a funeral home in Daejeon Metropolitan City, while his younger sister, Heo Hyeon-ok, was reported to be residing in Jeju Island. On March 2, 2023, Heo Hyeon-ok appeared on the 9340th episode of KBS 1TV's Morning Yard, which marked the 40th anniversary of "Searching for Separated Families" as part of the 50th anniversary celebration of public broadcasting in Korea. During the broadcast, she shared a poignant dream about her brother, in which he appeared in a trench coat and identified himself, prompting her to join the program.

The son who performed the ancestral rite for his mountain mother

"You are my son.""Mother, how are you alive? I was serving you food."

Among the various reunion episodes of 'Searching for Separated Families', the encounter between grandmother Kang Hak-gi (강학기) and her son Oh Soon-ho (오순호) stands out as the most poignant. This family was torn apart during their escape from the communist forces in Cheorwon amid the Korean War. In a desperate attempt to evade bombings, they, along with others, sought refuge in a bunker. However, during a chaotic evacuation led by the US military, the mother and son were separated, with Oh Soon-ho eventually relocating to Busan, where he built a new life, unaware of his mother's fate for three decades.

The reunion was facilitated by a collaboration between Seoul KBS and Busan, culminating in a touching moment where Kang Hak-gi, despite her advanced age, inquired about her son's name and the names of his siblings. This scene is particularly striking, as it highlights her determination to reconnect with her family. Oh Soon-ho, recalling the distinct features of his younger sister, who was also present in the studio, sought confirmation of their shared past. The emotional climax occurred when the grandmother, recognizing her son after so many years, exclaimed, "You are our son," leading to an outpouring of tears from both her and her daughter, Jeom-soon (점순).

Oh Soon-ho struggled to contain his emotions, attempting to maintain composure in the face of overwhelming relief and joy. The intensity of the moment caused him to lean on a nearby companion for support as his breathing quickened. His wife, who accompanied him, was equally affected, unable to suppress her tears as they shared in this profound reunion. The scene encapsulates the deep emotional bonds of family and the enduring impact of separation, illustrating the powerful human capacity for love and connection even after years of uncertainty.

In a poignant reunion, an unusual incident unfolded. The son’s family believed that his mother had died during that period. This event occurred three decades post-war, a time when the healthcare system and public services for the elderly were significantly lacking, if not at their lowest point. Reflecting on this, it is remarkable that Grandma Kang Hak-gi, who appeared on television, managed to recover. Even when compared to the elderly of the 21st century, her dental health was notably poor. He mentioned that he was unaware of the ancestral rites day, leading him to prepare the ceremonial meal for his mother during New Year's Day or Chuseok. When his son and daughter-in-law, meeting for the first time on screen, expressed their grievances, he humorously remarked, "You prepared my food? That must be why I lived so long." In Confucian belief, there exists a superstition that conducting a memorial service for a living person can extend their life.

The video opens with announcer Hwang In-yong (황인용) and talent Kang Bu-ja (강부자) as special guests. Both were previously featured on the television program 'Studio 830' and 'Morning Yard.' The initiative to reunite separated families originated from Studio 830, where Hwang was hosting a radio show titled "Hello, I'm Hwang In-yong and Kang Bu-ja" on KBS. As a weekend program, the regular cast members were on break, allowing these two radio hosts to step in as substitutes. At that time, the radio was simultaneously airing the separated families program on television, resulting in a temporary hiatus for the television segment.

The grandmother's presence infuses warmth into this otherwise sombre reunion narrative. Her light-heartedness and ability to engage with the audience, even amidst the emotional backdrop, foster a sense of connection and relief. The interplay of humour and sentimentality not only highlights the resilience of familial bonds but also underscores the cultural significance of ancestral rites in shaping perceptions of life and longevity. This blend of emotion and levity serves to enrich the storytelling, making the reunion both memorable and impactful.

"Don't worry about living"

Younger brother : Don't worry, brother. I'm doing well. I'm doing well. I'm doing very well on my own without asking anyone for help. Don't worry about it. Older brother : Don't worry about living. Anyway, since we met, we shouldn't break up. Right? Right?

Mr. Im Geum-hae (임금해), known as Kim Gwang-ok (김광옥) at the time, and his elder brother Im Sin-hyo (이민효), residing in Busan, visited the Seoul Broadcasting Station on August 27. The YouTube video inaccurately refers to Im Sin-hyo as Im Sin-woo (임신우). During their meeting, the younger brother, having seen his elder sibling's broadcast in which he sought him out, contacted the station. The striking resemblance between the brothers became evident when the satellite connection displayed the younger brother's face, prompting the elder brother to exclaim, "Oh, right, they look alike," which captivated the audience.

During the war, the younger brother was initially adopted by a deputy chief in Yeongdeungpo but was placed in an orphanage within a year, leading a solitary life until their reunion. He bore a scar on his left side from a burn prior to his adoption, which facilitated their immediate recognition of one another. Just before their meeting, he learned from his adoptive mother that 'Kim Gwang-ok' (김광옥) was the name she had given him, while his true name was 'Im Dol-i.' (임돌이) This prior knowledge of his identity significantly aided him in reconnecting with his elder brother.

Following the adoption of his younger brother, my sibling was separated from their biological mother and expressed a desire to locate her during a broadcast. My father, who had been traveling between Japan and Korea prior to the war, lost all contact after its conclusion, leaving us unaware of his whereabouts. My brother speculated that our father may have permanently settled in Japan, a country that has seen a considerable influx of Koreans due to the intense political strife and violence that ensued after liberation. Notably, the Jeju 4.3 Incident, which resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands, prompted many Koreans to emigrate to Japan, leading to the establishment of a distinct community for those from Jeju.

The reunion was marked by numerous poignant remarks, including my brother's heart-wrenching statement, "I've been alone in the world all my life, this is how I've lived." This sentiment deeply affected even our typically composed older brother, who could not contain his tears upon witnessing his younger sibling's distress, particularly during their heartfelt exchange. My younger brother, a self-made entrepreneur based in Incheon, is married with children. His wife and son made an appearance on the broadcast, greeting our older brother, which led to the aforementioned conversation. When he revealed that his son's name was Dae-hyeon, announcer Lee Ji-yeon offered her congratulations, noting, "You've been living as Kim Dae-hyeon (김대현) until now, but now you're changing your name to Im Dae-hyeon (임대현)." The emotional atmosphere was further heightened by the playing of the song "Bloodlines We Met Again."

In 2021, the younger brother recounted his story on television, revealing previously undisclosed information, including a reunion certificate issued by KBS at that time, intended for the correction of the family register. Despite a close bond lasting three decades, the older brother's death in 2012 marked a tragic turn. The broadcast suggests that the younger brother continues to use the name Kim Gwang-ok. Notably, even with KBS's issuance of a correction certificate, changing one's name entails altering not only personal but also children's surnames, alongside the necessity to inform business associates and others about the name change, complicating the process significantly. Although advancements in technology have streamlined these procedures, the past presented considerable challenges, leading many to retain their known names throughout their lives. Consequently, individuals from the middle-aged demographic and older often possess discrepancies between their official family register names and the names they are commonly addressed by, resulting in a tendency to accept the knowledge of their original names without pursuing formal changes.

Other Miscellaneous Matters

On the afternoon broadcast of July 2, a poignant scene unfolded in the studio when a family reunion led to an emotional collapse. The daughter, who had endured the loss of her parents during an evacuation and had subsequently lived a challenging life as a housekeeper, was now middle-aged and overwhelmed with grief upon reuniting with her family. She cried out, "Why did you abandon me?" This emotional turmoil caused her mother, in her seventies, to faint from shock. Fortunately, she was quickly taken to the emergency room and recovered.

During this distressing moment, announcer Kim Dong-gun (김동건) took charge, urging those present to remain still and called for assistance from the infirmary. He emphasized the importance of not moving someone who has fainted without proper guidance. The live broadcast captured the raw emotions of the moment, with tears flowing as the audience witnessed the family's heartbreak, prompting a collective response of sorrow across the nation.

The following day, the broadcast continued to address the incident, with announcers attempting to soothe the guests by highlighting the mother's high blood pressure and urging calmness. This event was later documented in the April 22, 1995, edition of the Saturday Newspaper, which featured an article titled, "Who Doesn't Know This Person?": Sobbing… Heartbreak… A 'Human Drama' Without Direction. Additionally, it was revisited in a special Modern Korea broadcast on September 3, 2020, where Kim Dong-gun reflected on the emotional weight of separation, drawing from his own experiences as a displaced person from Hwanghae-do.

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On the October 1 broadcast, Lee Kang-hoon (이강훈), a resident of Busan, travelled to Yeouido with his wife and their six-year-old son to celebrate his mother-in-law's birthday. He expressed that financial constraints had initially prevented them from attending. A fortunate incident occurred when the son unexpectedly encountered his brother at Yeouido Plaza after spotting a piece of paper bearing their father's name. At that time, it was common for six-year-olds to struggle with reading Korean. This situation raised questions about whether the children's upbringing or their inherent intelligence contributed to their respectful behaviour. The child's father took pride in sharing this story throughout the broadcast.

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The Park sisters experienced separation following their father's venture into business, leading to their placement in different adoptive homes due to post-war financial struggles. One of the sisters was reportedly adopted by the poet Noh Cheon-myeong (노천명), yet her experience was marred by hardship, as she was compelled to serve as a maid despite the arrangement being labelled as adoption. I encountered these sisters during the broadcast on July 9.

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Numerous families encountered by one of the broadcasters during registration were found in the public hall or Yeouido Plaza. While not all were required to appear on the broadcast, some received invitations to the public hall. One guest recounted an incident where they noticed someone removing posters, prompting them to inquire about the action, only to discover a placard bearing the same name as theirs, leading to a reunion with their aunt. Another guest shared a story of an older brother who posted a notice seeking his younger sibling; shortly thereafter, the younger sibling attempted to post a similar notice below it and was overwhelmed to find a paper with his name, resulting in their reunion. Additionally, some siblings, seated next to each other during the story's introduction, recognized the striking similarities in their placards, which ultimately facilitated their reunion after verification.

Many individuals were separated from their families at a young age, often retaining only fragmented memories, such as names or even lacking recollection of their own identities. Those fortunate enough to remember specific details, like a prominent tree in their village or the location of a relative's home, found solace in these memories. Physical traits, including scars and marks from wartime experiences, served as additional anchors to their past. Some families recounted poignant moments, such as a sibling recalling an incident involving a rock, while others searched for lost loved ones by identifying unique physical characteristics, like a scar on a child's head.

In various instances, individuals recognized each other through visual cues, often facilitated by local media. For example, siblings Heo Hyeon-cheol (Heo Hyeon-cheol) and Heo Hyeon-ok (허현옥) experienced an emotional reunion when she immediately identified him upon seeing his face, exclaiming, "It's my brother!" This recognition was heightened by their striking resemblance. However, the passage of time had altered their appearances and memories, leading to complexities in their identities, as exemplified by her belief that she had been "adopted by a barbershop on a cloudy day." Such experiences underscore the profound impact of memory and the changes that accompany aging.

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Numerous instances of family separation occurred following the Korean War, particularly among those who returned to Korea immediately after liberation or defected to South Korea post-38th parallel division. This phenomenon was notably prevalent among families residing in Gyeonggi, Gangwon-do, and parts of Hwanghae-do. Individuals with ancestral ties to regions such as Jilin Province in Manchuria, Sakhalin, Hwatae, or Karafuto may now find these connections unfamiliar. Furthermore, the topic of 'population movement by era,' often overlooked in Korean geography and history textbooks, starkly illustrates the profound tragedies experienced during this period. Notably, individuals who had left behind separated families in China were able to reunite when tourism to China was permitted in 1988.

Among the narratives presented, the National Defence Corps is primarily referred to as the "Second National Soldier." Numerous accounts detail the efforts of individuals seeking those who vanished after conscription. While there were some fortunate reunions, the overwhelming tragedy experienced by the National Defence Forces during that period suggests that many of the drafted soldiers likely perished in the conflict. The National Guard gained infamy for unprecedented military corruption, leading to widespread suffering, starvation, exposure, and disease among soldiers before they could even participate in battle. Notably, there was an instance of an individual who remained unaccounted for despite being confirmed as having the same name on three separate occasions, highlighting the failures in verification processes.

During a meeting among siblings, Kim Il-sung of North Korea exclaimed, “Inomushikiya!!! Do you know this fact!!!” This provoked a passionate response from Heo Hyeon-cheol, who urged everyone to unite against Kim Il-sung, declaring, "Everyone! Let's all come out together and defeat Kim Il-sung!!" Some attendees even entered the studio brandishing the Taegeukgi. Many individuals present, particularly those in their 30s and older, had directly experienced the war, perceiving Kim Il-sung as a formidable adversary. This sentiment was especially prevalent among those born before the early 1950s. By 1983, even individuals aged 30 had been born during the conflict, and the older generation's animosity was well-established. As of the 2020s, many from this demographic are now in their 70s or older, maintaining a strong hostility towards the North Korean regime and remaining vigilant regarding security matters. This group also exhibits the highest levels of support for conservative parties that advocate a robust anti-North Korean stance, including an actor who, in his later years as a sergeant, sought vengeance against Kim Il-sung.

The release of the film Ode to My Father in 2015, which focused on the theme of separated families, sparked controversy due to a scene featuring an extra walking through Yeouido Plaza while holding both the Taegeukgi and the North Korean flag. At that time, the National Security Act was still in force, meaning that the act of displaying the North Korean flag, as shown in the film, could have led to immediate arrest, and there was a significant risk of violence from displaced individuals. Additionally, the narrative included a grandmother searching for her 14-year-old son, Lee Dae-sik (이대식), who had vanished while delivering newspapers in Seoul following the January 4th Retreat. A broadcast by SBS on March 28, 2015, titled "Child Agents in the North - We Were Bullet Candidates," revealed that he had been chosen as a child agent and sent to North Korea.

Eyewitnesses have reported sightings of him in a political prison camp, and six decades after he went missing, the state announced that he had died in 1952. Among the cases recalled by Seol Woon-do (설운도), one individual appeared on a broadcast dressed in mourning attire. This guest's mother, a member of a separated family, had been visiting the KBS open hall daily in search of her lost relatives, but she passed away. Despite the mourning period, he chose to be in the studio to fulfil her wishes, hoping that the family she sought might appear.

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Shortly after the broadcast commenced, an elderly man residing in Dongjak-gu, Seoul, tragically took his own life. His son revealed that the man had left behind his wife and three siblings in the North during the January 4th Retreat, defecting to the South alongside his younger brother. Overcome with emotion while watching the broadcast, he exited his home around 5:30 PM on July 2nd, ultimately ending his life in silence.

The narrative surrounding the three siblings is equally poignant. During the Korean War, they were ostracized as Japanese and sought refuge in a cave, which served as an air-raid shelter constructed by the Japanese military using Korean labour towards the end of the Pacific War. Following the devastation of Japanese cities by U.S. strategic bombings, many individuals were left homeless, residing in such shelters. Their parents had passed away, leading the siblings to work as servants, while their younger sister, Heo Shin-ja, battled typhoid fever. After moving to Seoul due to their maternal aunt's neglect, the siblings faced further hardship, culminating in the younger sister's flight from home and subsequent estrangement. Notably, her enduring resentment towards their aunt remains palpable, as evidenced by her vehement outburst towards her brother regarding their aunt's well-being.

The three siblings habitually refer to one another using their Japanese names. The younger sister's official name, "Shin-ja," corresponds to the Korean pronunciation of the Japanese name Nobuko (信子). The second eldest brother is named Isamu (勇), while the eldest brother is called Yoshi (芳). Given that their Korean names are derived from Japanese names articulated in Korean phonetics, it is plausible that the eldest brother's name '芳 (Bang)' is pronounced Yoshi in Japanese. During a broadcast, when asked about his Korean name, he identified himself as "Heo Bang." However, the video does not provide conclusive evidence regarding the nationalities of their parents.

The siblings' maternal uncle held the rank of lieutenant colonel in the South Korean Army, suggesting that their mother was likely Korean and their father Japanese. There have been instances where Japanese individuals visited the studio or sent correspondence in search of their families. These cases primarily involved individuals who had worked in local government or had been dispatched to colonies like Joseon or Manchukuo during the Japanese Empire. Many were separated from their families after becoming hikiagesha following the war's conclusion. Some families, like the Heo Shin-ja siblings, experienced separation due to the complexities of Japanese-Korean identity. After diplomatic relations were established between China and Japan, some hikiagesha families in Manchukuo were able to reunite and obtain Japanese citizenship, but faced racial discrimination upon returning to Japan, leading many to relocate back to China or become involved in organized crime. Others who struggled to find a place faced persecution from the government, as exemplified by the situation at Narita Airport.

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A woman, whose lineage includes parents and grandparents active in the independence movement, discovered her aunt.

In another instance, five siblings separated during the Korean War were successfully reunited via this broadcast.

Additionally, a family that accumulated wealth from their father's labour prior to the Korean War contributed food aid to the national army, while some siblings were labelled as reactionaries by the People's Army due to their capitalist ties and subsequently defected to South Korea. (Link 1 & 2 to two episodes from the broadcast)

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I must admit that after viewing several videos related to this episode, I found myself moved to tears. Given the extensive nature of this broadcast and the wealth of information it contains, a part 3 will be produced for this album and broadcast.

[cosmosbeelover]

The History of Korean Male Groups – From Yeonhee Professional Singers’ Quartet to BTS -> Pt. 7/? (Rewrite)

Following liberation, the Korean popular music landscape in the 1950s faced significant challenges due to the aftermath of war; however, it simultaneously emerged as a period ripe with potential and optimism. The influx of Western music genres, largely facilitated by the presence of the US military in Korea, led to a diversification of musical styles. Performers from the US 8th Army, who entertained troops on designated stages, found opportunities to showcase their talents beyond Korea, reaching audiences in Southeast Asia and the United States, in addition to Japan.

The 1960s are often regarded as the golden era of Korean popular music, characterized by a notable expansion beyond the traditional trot genre to include pop, jazz, rock, and folk music. This diversification not only enriched the musical landscape but also aligned with the national sentiment of rebuilding a war-torn country, infusing the scene with vibrant energy. During this time, male vocal groups, particularly four-member quartets emphasizing harmony, gained prominence, with the Bluebells leading the way. Other notable groups from this era included the Bongbong Quartet, Four Clovers, Mellotone Quartet, and Johnny Brothers, all of which contributed to the evolving musical narrative.

It is important to note that the following information will reference various groups that were active before, during, and after the contests, which may create some confusion regarding the timeline. I will address some of these groups in more detail in my next post, but I wanted to provide this context first, as some of these groups gained or enhanced their fame through these contests. This post will include numerous groups, duos, and solo artists, and since I have translated the information from Korean to English, the names of some groups and duos may appear unusual; therefore, I have included their Korean names alongside them, as I have done in previous and will continue to do in future posts.

The Playboy Cup National Vocal Group Contests:

The discussion of The Playboy Cup National Vocal Group (플레이보이컵 쟁탈 전국 보컬그룹) Contests arises from their resemblance, in my view, to the school and music festivals that thrived from the 1960s to the 1990s, as well as contemporary idol group competitions. These contests hold significance as they have contributed to the emergence of numerous pioneering Korean rock bands that were nurtured through this platform.

Between the late 1960s and early 1970s, Seoul witnessed a surge of vocal group competitions that captivated the youth. Notably, the Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition served as a pivotal platform for bands associated with the 8th US Army, facilitating their transition to broader performance venues and significantly influencing the development of band music in Korea.

During the 1960s, the vibrant atmosphere of the US 8th Army stage catalyzed a group sound phenomenon within the Korean popular music landscape. As male and female ensembles honed their talents in the clubs of the US 8th Army, they began to transition to more prominent venues, including theatre performances and music appreciation events. The fervent support for various group sound competitions drew large crowds in the Gwanghwamun (광화문) area, particularly at the Seoul Citizens' Hall, which was a renowned venue for these events before its destruction by fire.

Group sound contest advertisements from the 1960s.

The Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition, a notable event in the late 1960s and early 1970s, served as a crucial platform for bands associated with the 8th Army Club to transition into the mainstream music scene. This competition played a significant role in the development of band music in Korea, fostering a vibrant musical culture during a transformative period.

The participants of the Playboy Cup competition became instrumental in shaping the domestic rock genre, revitalizing a previously stagnant music landscape. Although the event was known by various titles, including the 'Playboy Cup Competition' and 'National Group Sound Competition,' this discussion will refer to it as the 'Playboy Cup National Vocal Group Competition' for clarity. The inclusion of 'Playboy' in the title reflects the involvement of Playboy Productions, led by CEO Lee Soon-woo (이순우), in organizing the event.

The 1st Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest

The inaugural Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition took place from May 17 to 20, 1969, at the Seoul Citizens' Hall, featuring 20 male and female vocal ensembles. Organized by Playboy Productions and supported by the weekly publication Sunday Seoul, the event highlighted the challenges faced by vocal groups in establishing themselves within the Korean light music industry. According to Sunday Seoul, these groups struggled due to limited performance venues, primarily restricted to a few large stages and television platforms, while being largely overlooked by local entertainment venues and the recording industry, which are crucial for financial sustainability. Additionally, the economic viability of hiring smaller solo acts over larger vocal groups further exacerbated the difficulties faced by these ensembles.

Press Releases on the First Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest

The competition, initially perceived as a commercial endeavour, exceeded all expectations and proved to be a remarkable success. The Civic Centre, with a seating capacity of 3,000, was filled to capacity from the outset on May 17, prompting an extension of the event from its original three-day schedule to four days. Given the season's unsuitability for commercial performances and the limited popularity of vocal groups, this outcome was nothing short of extraordinary. Despite the presence of numerous top-tier singers and comedians, the typically vacant Civic Centre experienced such high attendance that ticket scalping incidents occurred, underscoring the event's exceptional nature, as highlighted in the post-event report which emphasized its necessity and triumph.

Left Album - VocalNO.1 Key Boys Special 2nd Album Front. Right Album - He5 Jeongjugo I'm crying / Lee Seungjae's Eyes Album Front.

In the inaugural Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition, the grand prize was awarded to Key Boys (키보이스), while He5 (히파이브가) received the excellence prize and Guys & Dolls (가이즈앤돌즈) took home the composition prize. Among individual accolades, the singer of the year was recognized as Lee Pil-won (이필원) from Tigers (타이거즈), who subsequently collaborated with Park In-hee (박인희) to form Duae Moa (뚜아에무아), significantly contributing to the era of mixed duets. The performance award was given to Jo Young-jo (조영조) of Key Boys, and the Sunday Seoul family award (선데이서울 가족상은) was shared by Cherry Sisters (체리시스터즈) and Tigers, with the popularity award going to Playboy (플레이보이가).

Left Album - My Love Mina / Hometown of You and Me / When I Met You Album Front. Right Album - Your Heart / White House / Delilah Album Front.

Following the competition, numerous press articles emerged that emphasized the phenomenon of group sound. Notably, Key Boys, the recipients of both the grand prize and the performance award, reissued their pre-competition album featuring the track "Let’s Go to the Beach" (해변으로 가요) to underscore their victory. Although the event was promoted as a commemoration for May 16, it appears that the subsequent activities were conducted independently of this theme.

The 2nd Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest

The second Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition took place at the Seoul Citizens' Hall over four days, from July 10 to 13, 1970. Organized by Lee Soon-woo, the CEO of Playboy Production, and directed by Kim Jeong-ho (김정호), this event demonstrated a notable elevation in prestige compared to the previous year. The competition featured prominent artists of the era, including Kim Chu-ja (김추자), Jo Young-nam (조영남), and Park In-soo (박인수), alongside various vocal groups such as Shin Jung-hyun and Questions (신중현과 퀘션스), Pearl Sisters (펄시스터즈), and Angels (엔젤스), which significantly enhanced public engagement and interest.

Advertisement for the 2nd Annual Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest (1970)

To promote impartial evaluation, a panel of judges was established, consisting of Shin Jung-hyun, Seo Byung-hoo (서병후), Jeong Hong-taek (정홍택), Choi Dong-wook (최동욱), and Lee Jong-hwan (이종환). On the final day, July 13, six out of the twelve teams that advanced from the preliminary round engaged in intense competition. He6 (히식스) was awarded the grand prize, Last Chance (라스트찬스) received the excellence prize, Devils (데블스) earned the composition prize, and Young Ace (영에이스는) was granted the encouragement prize.

Left Album - HE6 Vol.1 /Cosmos Series Vol.1 Album front Right Photo - He6 commemorative photo after winning the 2nd Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest

In the second competition, He6 secured the grand prize due to their vibrant composition and exceptional lighting. The duo of singers Kim Sun and the Jun Sisters, who had previously performed on the third floor of the Cosmos Room in Myeongdong, Seoul, joined He6 on stage, garnering enthusiastic applause from the audience and earning the popularity award, thus becoming dual champions. He6, recognized as the leading rock band of their era, was also invited to the inaugural Cheongpyeong Festival (청평페스티벌) in Cheongpyeong, Gapyeong-gun, Gyeonggi-do, in 1971, where they played a significant role in revitalizing domestic rock music through their passionate performance.

Left Album - White Christmas / Jingle Bells, Last Chance Album Front (Evolution of Christmas Carols) Right Album - 1st Album! Group Sound Devils Front of the album

Last Chance, the recipient of the Excellence Award, garnered attention for his distinctive long-haired look. The Leadership Award was presented to Park Young-geol (박영걸), the manager of Last Chance. Park Young-geol played a pivotal role in discovering the group Devils alongside Last Chance and has also managed notable artists such as Shin Jung-hyun (신중현) and Yeopjeon (엽전). Subsequently, he contributed to the careers of female artists including Lee Eun-ha (이은하), Jung Ae-ri (정애리), Yoon Seung-hee (윤승희), and others, as well as the band Sanulrim (산울림). Renowned for his exceptional management abilities, he established Noman Planning and initiated the Noman Song Festival to identify emerging talent.

2nd Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition Devils Performance Photos

The individual performance award was presented to Lee Bu-il (이부일), the drummer of Devils, while Yeon Seok-won (연석원) from the same group received the Best Singer Award. The debut album of Devils prominently features the accolades "2nd Playboy Vocal Group Contest Composition Award, Best Singer Award." Additionally, He6's debut album, designed as a gatefold, includes the phrase "2nd National Group Sound Contest Grand Prize," which signifies the top honour from the 2nd Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest. Notably, Devils' distinctive stage act, which involved dragging a coffin and performing barefoot, was later depicted in the 2008 film "Go Go 70," (고고 70) (Another Source) directed by Choi Ho (최호) and featuring actors Cho Seung-woo (조승우) and Shin Min-a (신민아).

The 3rd Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest

The third competition took place at the Seoul Citizens' Hall over four days, from July 16 to 19, 1971. An article published in the Kyunghyang Shinmun (경향신문) on July 12, 1971, reported that the third Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition, offering a prize of 3 million won, aimed to distinguish itself from earlier events by positioning itself as a pop festival intended to promote uplifting music in accordance with the "New Wind Movement" advocated by the government during that period.

Advertisement for the 3rd Annual Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest (1971)

The Sanremo Festival, a hallmark of Italian culture, has introduced a new folk song category, significantly broadening its scope to encompass approximately 100 judges from the entertainment sector. Additionally, a new MC category was created to enhance the event's diversity. This folk category, inspired by the rising popularity of acoustic guitar music, featured 13 bands, including Key Boys, He6, Key Brothers (키브라더스), Last Chance, Trippers (트리퍼스), Rush (러시), and Vis (비스), alongside numerous folk artists such as the mixed duet Duae Moa, the male duet Shagrin (쉐그린), and solo performers Seo Yu-seok (서유석), Kim Eun-hee (김은희), Yang Hee-eun (양희은), and Lee Yong-bok (이용복), all of whom actively participated in the competition.

He6 members who won the grand prize at the 3rd Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest.

Left Album - Key Brothers Special Collection Album Front Right Album - Young Sound Hit Parade Album Front

He6 secured the grand prize for the second year in a row, reinforcing their status in the competition. Last Chance also received the excellence award for the second consecutive year. Furthermore, Woodstock’s (우드스탁스) (Not this Woodstock’s) was honoured with the encouragement award, Rush received the composition award, Key Brothers was recognized with the popularity award, and Young Sound (영사운드) was granted the special award.

Front cover of Lee Yong-bok's latest masterpiece album

The inaugural prize in the newly created folk category was awarded to Lee Yong-bok, a former member of the rock band Cactus (캑터스) during his tenure at the Seoul School for the Blind. His agency, Shinjin Records (신진레코드는), enhanced the visual appeal of his new album by featuring trophies from the competition on its cover, thereby emphasizing his distinction as Korea's first visually impaired singer with remarkable musical talent. The rookie award was presented to Yang Hee-eun (양희은), who was gaining recognition as an idol among the younger demographic. The popularity award was claimed by the male duet Shagreen (쉐그린), while the encouragement award went to the male duet Ebonys (에보니스), and the lyricist award was awarded to the male duet Two Koreans (투코리언스가), led by Kim Do-hyang (김도향).

Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest Winners' Celebration Performance '72

The fourth competition did not take place in 1972. Instead, a special event titled 'Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition Winners' Celebration Performance' was organized at Seoul Citizens' Hall, running for four days from January 27 to January 30.

Advertisement for the Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest Winners' Celebration Performance (1972)

This event, which was sponsored by Haitai Confectionery (해태제과), functioned as a gala rather than a competition, showcasing performances by stars from the previous three Playboy Cup vocal group competitions. The event was orchestrated by Park Young-geol, a recipient of the leadership award for his group, Devils, which had previously won the composition award in the inaugural competition. Featured performers included bands such as Key Boys, He6, Last Chance, Rush, Key Brothers, Devils, Bis, Woodstock’s, and Young Sound, alongside folk musicians like Lee Yong-bok, Eun-hee (은희), Yang Hee-eun, Shagrin, Ebonys, and Two Koreans.

Bees Front cover of the album "The Meadow of Jihoon's Last Date"

Various contests before & after the Playboy Cup contest

Numerous events in the late 1960s and early 1970s showcased vocal groups akin to those in the Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition. Several significant occasions during this period likely had reciprocal influences with the Playboy Cup, shaping the landscape of vocal group performances.

1966 Show Playboy

A vocal group competition titled "Show Playboy" took place at Seoul Citizens' Hall from June 10 to 12, 1966. An article in the Kyunghyang Shinmun dated June 8, 1966, announced that approximately 20 vocal groups would participate in this inaugural recital, generating significant interest in the event.

The organization of the Playboy event, reminiscent of the Playboy Cup vocal group competition, was overseen by Lee Soon-woo from Playboy Productions. The lineup featured notable performers, including the band Add4, recognized for releasing Korea's first original rock album in 1964, alongside various other groups such as the Jeon Seung-nam sisters (전승남 자매), Dark Eyes (다크아이즈), and the Kimchis (더김치스).

Left Album - "Ed. Huh’s" first album (THE ADD4'FIRST ALBUM) Front of the album Right Album - Front cover of the Garden and Shauders album

Additional performers included Shouters (샤우터스), Babos (바보스), For Guys (포가이스), Elephant Voice (코끼리보이스), Key Boys, Honey Bee Sisters (허니비시스터즈), Kerry Brook (케리부룩), Arirang Sisters (아리랑시스터즈), Venus Sisters (비너스시스터즈), Jeong Sisters (정시스터즈), Mellotone (멜로톤), Trio Kits (트리오킷스), Johnny Brothers (자니브라더스), Bongbong (봉봉), Bluebells (블루벨스), Eunbangul Sisters (은방울자매), and the twin sister’s duo, Gapsoon Eulsoon (갑순을순). This diverse array of talent contributed to the event's appeal and significance in the Korean music scene.

1970 National Vocal Group Sound Contest

The National Vocal Group Sound Contest, which took place from August 16 to 23, 1970, was organized by the Korea Entertainment Troupe Managers Association, rather than Playboy Productions. This event received sponsorship from the Ministry of Culture and the Seoul Shinmun, culminating in the prestigious Minister of Culture and Public Information Award as its grand prize.

Advertisement for the National Vocal Group Sound Contest Civic Centre Performance (1970)

This competition, organized to celebrate the 25th anniversary of liberation, featured participation from various groups including Key Boys, Pink Paints (핑크페인트스), Devils (데블스), The Shouters (더샤우터스), Dark Ices (다크아이스), Trippers (트리퍼스), Five Fingers (파이브핑거스), Riders (라이더스), Choka (쵸카), For Guys (포가이스), The Beasts (더비스), Last Chance (라스트찬스), Aloha (아로하), The Times (더타임스), Top Step (탑스텝), Diens (디엔즈), Kimchis (김치스), and Young Ace (영에이스).

TRIPPERS GO GO album cover

1971 1st Sunday Seoul Cup Vocal Group Contest

In 1970, Sunday Seoul, the organization that sponsored the inaugural Playboy Cup Vocal Group Contest, organized its own vocal group competition known as the Sunday Seoul Cup.

Press release on the 1st Sunday Seoul Cup Vocal Group Contest (1971)

Following five days of preliminary rounds, the seven teams that advanced from the semi-finals faced off in the finals on May 30th. He6 (히식스) secured the Grand Prix, while the Excellence Award was presented to Key Boys (키보이스). The Composition Award went to Young Sound (영사운드), and the Popularity Award was claimed by the American quartet Rush (러시). New Midopas (뉴미도파스) received the Special Award, and the Individual Performance Award was awarded to Kim Hong-tak (김홍탁) from He6 and Lee Kwang-il (이광일) from Key Boys. The Best Singer Award was given to Cho Yong-pil (조용필) of Kim Trio (김트리오), and the Encouragement Award was bestowed upon B.I.S (비스에).

Left Album - Musical "Diary of Love" / Love's Lullaby Album Front Right Album - Drum! Drum! Drum! / Amp Guitar Go Go! Go Go! Go Go! Go Go! Album Front

1972 Weekly Kyunghyang Cup Competition 1st New Star Pop Contest

The inaugural New Star Pop Contest, known as the Weekly Kyunghyang Cup (주간경향컵), took place from August 3 to 6, 1972, at the Seoul Citizens' Hall. This event aimed to "create a new direction in pop music, which represents over fifty percent of the domestic popular music scene, and to promote quality songs for the emerging rock generation." The Grand Prize was awarded to Ham Joong-ah's (함중아) Golden Grapes (골든그레이프스), while the Excellence Award went to LAS, the Popularity Award was given to Jokers (조커스), and the Duo Award was presented to the Candy Sisters (캔디시스터즈가).

Weekly Kyunghyang Cup Competition News Star Pop Contest Article (1972)

An examination of the various award categories reveals the following recipients: the Soul Grand Prize was awarded to LAS, the Popular Music Grand Prize went to Tempest (템페스트), the Female Group Grand Prize was given to Arirang Sisters (아리랑 시스터즈), and Jang Gye-hyeon (장계현) received the Singer Grand Prize. Additionally, LAS was recognized with the Rock Female Singer Grand Prize, Lim Sung-hoon (임성훈) took home the Pop Male Singer Grand Prize, while Jeong Mi-jo (정미조) was honoured with the Pop Female Singer Grand Prize. In the folk category, Lee Seung-jae (이승재) won the Folk Male Singer Grand Prize, Heo Rim (허림) received the Folk Female Singer Grand Prize, and Clover was awarded the Popular Female Group Grand Prize (클로버다).

Left Album - Shin Jung-hyun SOUND VOL.3 Album Front Right Album - Jokers (JOKERS) Front cover of the first hit album

The Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition concluded with its third round, and subsequent articles or albums do not reference a fourth round. Furthermore, the venue for the event, Seoul Citizens' Hall, experienced a fire on December 2, 1972, following the performances by male and female singers during the MBC 11th anniversary 10th singer awards ceremony.

He6’s Civic Centre Pops Festival Performance (1970)

The Playboy Cup Vocal Group Competition, once a pivotal platform for bands and singers primarily performing on the US 8th Army stage to transition to a broader audience, has faded into obscurity. Nevertheless, numerous bands and musicians that originated from this competition evolved into prominent influencers, significantly reshaping the landscape of domestic rock music during the 1970s and 1980s.

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The History of Korean Male Groups – From Yeonhee Professional Singers’ Quartet to BTS -> Pt. 6.5/? (Rewrite)

In Part 6.5 of The History of Korean Male Groups, I will conclude the discussion initiated in Part 6 and begin exploring the Third Republic of Korea, which lasted from 1963 to 1972. This era is marked by significant historical events that continue to influence contemporary discussions and are intricately connected to the contributions of Korean artists from that time. A summary of these events will be provided, along with relevant videos at the end of this post; however, I urge readers to pursue additional independent research to deepen their comprehension of this facet of Korean history.

Third Republic of Korea

The Third Republic of Korea, which existed from December 1963 to November 1972, emerged following the disbandment of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction that had toppled the Second Republic and instituted a military regime in May 1961. Park Chung Hee (박정희), who served as the Chairman of the Supreme Council, was elected as the President of South Korea during the presidential election of 1963.

Although the Third Republic was ostensibly characterized by a return to civilian governance through the National Assembly, it functioned as a dictatorship dominated by Park, members of the Supreme Council, and the Democratic Republican Party. . The regime emphasized economic growth, anti-communism, and the enhancement of relations with the United States and Japan. Park secured re-election in 1967 and, with the National Assembly's support, amended the constitution to enable a third term, which he won in 1971. In December 1971, he declared a state of emergency and later proposed reunification with North Korea in July 1972. The October Restoration in 1972 saw the imposition of martial law, the dissolution of the National Assembly, and the announcement of a new constitutional framework. The Third Republic ultimately ended with the ratification of the Yusin Constitution in November 1972, leading to the establishment of the Fourth Republic of Korea.

Park Chung Hee

Park Chung Hee (박정희; November 14, 1917 – October 26, 1979) was a prominent South Korean politician and military officer who held the position of the third president of South Korea from 1962 until his assassination in 1979, following his rise to power through the May 16 coup in 1961. He is often considered one of the most influential figures in Korean history, although his legacy as a military dictator remains a subject of debate.

Prior to his presidency, Park served as the second-highest-ranking officer in the South Korean army. His coup effectively ended the interim Second Republic of Korea, and after two years as the head of the military junta, he was elected president in 1963, marking the beginning of the Third Republic. A staunch anti-communist, he fostered strong relations with the United States, which had maintained a significant military presence in South Korea since the Korean War. He endorsed American military actions in Southeast Asia and dispatched South Korean forces to Vietnam shortly after assuming power. Park implemented a series of economic reforms that resulted in remarkable economic growth and industrialization, a period now referred to as the Miracle on the Han River. This transformation positioned South Korea as one of the fastest-growing economies during the 1960s and 1970s, though it came at the expense of labor rights. Additionally, this period saw the emergence of chaebols, state-supported family-owned conglomerates akin to Japan's zaibatsu, with notable examples including Hyundai, LG, and Samsung.

Official presidential portrait, 1970s

Park's prominence, which peaked in the 1960s, began to decline in the 1970s, marked by narrow electoral victories in the 1971 presidential and subsequent legislative elections. In 1972, he imposed martial law following a self-coup and enacted the authoritarian Yushin Constitution, establishing the Fourth Republic. As a dictator, Park suppressed political dissent, exerted control over the military, and regulated media and artistic expression. His assassination in 1979 by Kim Jae-gyu (김재규), the KCIA director, occurred in the context of the Busan–Masan Uprising, leaving the nature of the act—spontaneous or premeditated—ambiguous. Despite the political upheaval following his death, economic growth persisted, leading to Choi Kyu-hah's (최규하) brief presidency before Chun Doo-Hwan’s (전두환) military takeover. The eventual democratization of South Korea was realized through the  June Democratic Struggle in 1987.

Park's legacy remains contentious within South Korean political discussions, complicating objective assessments of his administration. While some acknowledge his role in fostering economic development that transformed South Korea, others condemn his authoritarian governance, particularly post-1971, for compromising civil liberties and human rights in favour of economic stability and social order. A Gallup Korea survey in October 2021 identified Park, alongside former adversaries Kim Dae-jung (김대중) and Roh Moo-hyun (노무현), as among the most positively regarded presidents in South Korean history, particularly among conservatives and older demographics. His daughter, Park Geun-hye (박근혜), later became the 11th president of South Korea, serving from 2013 until her impeachment and conviction on corruption charges in 2017.

Rise to power

On April 26, 1960, Syngman Rhee, the first president of South Korea, was ousted from power and forced into exile due to the April Revolution, a movement primarily driven by students. Later that year, on July 29, Yun Po-sun was elected president; however, the actual authority resided with Prime Minister Chang Myon. The new administration faced immediate challenges, as neither leader could secure the loyalty of a significant faction within the Democratic Party or agree on cabinet appointments. In an effort to maintain the fragile coalition, Prime Minister Chang reshuffled cabinet positions three times within a span of five months.

The newly established government grappled with an economy plagued by years of mismanagement and corruption during Rhee's tenure, while simultaneously facing pressure from the student activists who had played a crucial role in his removal. Demonstrations became a common occurrence, with protesters demanding extensive political and economic reforms. The situation was exacerbated by a decline in public safety and widespread distrust of the police, which had been closely aligned with Rhee's regime, leading to a loss of support for the ruling Democratic Party amid ongoing factional disputes.

Park Chung-hee shook hands with General Guy S. Meloy Jr. during his visit to the United Nations Command in 1961.

In this climate of unrest and division, Major General Park established the Military Revolutionary Committee. Anticipating his imminent retirement, he accelerated the committee's plans, culminating in a military coup on May 16, 1961, which was ostensibly led by Army Chief of Staff Chang Do-yong, who defected on the day of the coup. Following this upheaval, Chang Myon announced his resignation along with his cabinet on May 18. Yun Po-sun accepted the coup and successfully convinced the United States Eighth Army and various commanders of the Republic of Korea Army to refrain from intervening in the transition of power.

A new administration emerged from military officers loyal to Park, with General Chang nominally at the helm of the reformist military Supreme Council for National Reconstruction. However, after Chang's arrest in July 1961, Park assumed full control of the council. The coup was generally embraced by a populace weary of ongoing political instability.

Following the coup, Park was elevated to the rank of Lieutenant General. Historian Hwang Moon Kyung characterized Park's governance as distinctly "militaristic," emphasizing his early efforts to organize South Korean society along militaristic principles. One of his initial initiatives involved a campaign to "clean up" urban areas, which included arresting the homeless and assigning them to work in "welfare centers." American historian Carter Eckert noted that the historiography surrounding Park often overlooks the significant influence of his militaristic worldview on his approach to South Korea's modernization, as well as the impact of Japanese militarism on his establishment of what is referred to as a "developmental dictatorship." Eckert described South Korea under Park as one of the most militarized states globally, highlighting his unprecedented efforts to instil militarization within South Korean society.

Within the Imperial Japanese Army, there existed a conviction that the principles of bushido would imbue Japanese soldiers with an indomitable spirit, rendering them invulnerable in combat. The Japanese perceived warfare primarily as a contest of will, where the side possessing the greater resolve would inevitably triumph. Park, influenced by his training under Japanese officers, often expressed the belief that "we can do anything if we try," positing that sheer willpower could surmount any challenge. Interviews conducted by Eckert with Park's close associates revealed a consensus that Park's formative experiences in officer training in Manchukuo were pivotal to his character, with his friends asserting that understanding his values necessitated an appreciation of his Ilbonsik sagwan kyoyuk, reflective of the ethos of an Imperial Japanese Army officer.

On June 19, 1961, the military council established the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA) to thwart counter-coups and neutralize perceived threats, both internal and external. The KCIA was endowed with investigative powers and the authority to arrest individuals suspected of misconduct or harbouring anti-government views. Under the leadership of its inaugural director, retired Brigadier General Kim Jong-pil, who was related to Park and a key architect of the coup, the agency expanded its influence into economic and foreign affairs, thereby consolidating its role in the governance of South Korea.

Park with U.S. President John F. Kennedy in Washington, D.C., on November 14, 1961.

President Yun's tenure provided a veneer of legitimacy to the military regime. Following his resignation on March 24, 1962, Lt. General Park, who was the chairman of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction, seized the opportunity to strengthen his authority by assuming the role of acting president and receiving a promotion to full general. Under pressure from the Kennedy administration, Park committed to reinstating civilian governance.

In 1963, he successfully ran for president as the nominee of the newly established Democratic Republican Party, appointing Park Myung-keun, the party's Vice Leader, as the head of the President's Office. Park won the election against former President Yun, representing the Civil Rule Party, by a narrow margin of just over 156,000 votes, equating to a 1.5 percent lead. He would later secure re-election in 1967, again defeating Yun, albeit with a slightly less challenging campaign.

Yushin Constitution

The governance of the Fourth Republic was characterized by the Yushin Constitution, a framework that drew its nomenclature from the concept of "restoration," akin to the Japanese Meiji Restoration (明治維新, Meiji-ishin), which facilitated Japan's emergence as a global power in the late 19th century. This term Yushin (유신; 維新) implies a significant imperial connotation, reflecting the concentration of power in the presidency, which was a hallmark of the Yushin Constitution. Under this regime, President Park held substantial authority, effectively centralizing governance and diminishing the role of other political entities.

The Yushin Constitution established a highly authoritarian political structure, endowing the president with extensive executive and legislative powers. The presidential term was extended to six years without restrictions on re-election, and the election process was manipulated through an electoral college, the National Conference for Unification, which was designed to limit candidates to a single choice. The president's authority included the ability to suspend constitutional rights and govern by decree, while the National Assembly's power was severely curtailed, as the president could dissolve it at will and appoint a significant portion of its members. This arrangement effectively transformed Park's presidency into a legal dictatorship, leading to widespread but ultimately futile protests against the regime.

Park contended that Western-style liberal democracy was ill-suited for South Korea due to its nascent economic status. He proposed that a "Korean-style democracy," characterized by a robust and unchallenged presidency, was essential for maintaining national stability.

On November 21, 1972, the Yushin Constitution was ratified in a South Korean constitutional referendum, receiving an extraordinary 92.3% approval from a turnout of 91.9%. This constitution led to the dissolution of the Third Republic and the establishment of the Fourth Republic of Korea. Park was re-elected unopposed for both a fourth term in 1972 and a fifth term in 1978.

The Fourth Republic experienced increased instability as Park's popularity waned and his autocratic governance became more overt during the 1970s. The Yushin Constitution facilitated legal and open violations of civil liberties, particularly aimed at quelling growing opposition, which in turn intensified resistance against his regime. Despite Park's repeated assurances of a transition to full democracy, scepticism regarding his intentions prevailed.

Some Documentaries

Numerous videos document the events of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. I recommend seeking out additional videos related to the aforementioned events for a more comprehensive understanding.

Note this video is 7 hours long

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The History of Korean Male Groups – From Yeonhee Professional Singers’ Quartet to BTS -> Pt. 6/? (Rewrite)

In Part 6 of The History of Korean Male Groups, the discussion will commence with the era following the Japanese occupation, highlighting the influence of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) and the establishment of the First, Second, and Third Republic of Korea, which spanned from 1948 to 1972. These significant historical events have enduring effects on contemporary discourse and are closely linked to the contributions of Korean artists who emerged during this period. A summary of these occurrences will be included, along with videos at the end of this post that pertain to the discussed events; however, I encourage readers to engage in further independent research to enhance their understanding of this aspect of Korean history.

Division of Korea

Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea

The Korean Provisional Government (KPG), officially known as the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, operated as a government in exile in China during the period of Japanese occupation. Established in Shanghai on April 11, 1919, the KPG enacted a provisional constitution that outlined a democratic republic, the "Republic of Korea," featuring a presidential system and three branches of government: legislative, administrative, and judicial. The KPG claimed the territory of the former Korean Empire and was bolstered by the Korean resistance movement, which received support from the Kuomintang (Guomindang; 中國國民黨), the Soviet Union, and France. Following 1932, the KPG relocated several times before ultimately settling in Chongqing until the conclusion of World War II in 1945, with several of its headquarters in Shanghai and Chongqing now preserved as museums.

The KPG's existence concluded with Japan's surrender on August 15, 1945, prompting its members to return to Korea. There, they established political organizations under the American military administration and vied for influence in what would evolve into South Korea. On August 15, 1948, Syngman Rhee, who had served as the first president of the KPG, was inaugurated as the first President of the Republic of Korea. The current South Korean government asserts continuity with the KPG through the 1987-amended constitution, although this claim has been a subject of debate among scholars and historians.

People's Republic of Korea

The People's Republic of Korea (PRK) (조선인민공화국) was a provisional government established briefly following Japan's surrender at the conclusion of World War II. It was officially announced on September 6, 1945, during the division of Korea into two occupation zones, with the Soviet Union controlling the northern region and the United States overseeing the south. The PRK was founded on a framework of people's committees and aimed to promote the democratization of both society and the economy.

Associate Chairman Lyuh Woon-hyung (류운형) giving a speech at a YMCA in Gyeongseong (16 August 1945).

On December 12, 1945, the US military government in the south deemed the PRK to be illegitimate. Meanwhile, in the north, Soviet authorities assumed control of the PRK by appointing pro-Soviet Korean communists, including Kim Il-sung (김일성), to key positions, thereby integrating it into the political framework of the nascent Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea).

United States Army Military Government in Korea

The United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) (재조선 미국 육군사령부 군정청) served as the governing authority for the southern region of the Korean Peninsula from September 8, 1945, until August 15, 1948. This era was marked by significant political and economic instability, largely stemming from the lingering impacts of Japanese colonial rule, which affected both the southern and northern zones of Korea.

The discontent among the populace was exacerbated by the U.S. military government's alignment with remnants of the Japanese administration, including the retention of former Japanese officials as advisors. Additionally, the suppression of the People's Republic of Korea and the endorsement of United Nations elections that further divided the nation contributed to the unrest. The U.S. military's lack of preparation for governance, coupled with their unfamiliarity with the local language and political dynamics, led to policies that often-had destabilizing consequences, further complicated by the influx of approximately 400,000 refugees from the north and returning expatriates.

Anti-trusteeship movement [ko] protest, December 1945

Key Events

In response to increasing public dissatisfaction, Hodge established the Korean Advisory Council in October 1945. The Council predominantly comprised members from the Korean Democratic Party, which had been formed with U.S. support and was largely composed of affluent landowners, business elites, and former colonial officials. Although a few representatives from the People's Republic of Korea were invited to participate, they declined and criticized the Council members for their collaboration with Japanese authorities.

A proposal for a long-term  trusteeship over Korea emerged in 1945, leading to an agreement in December between the United States and the Soviet Union to jointly administer the country through the U.S.–Soviet Joint Commission, as established at the  Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers. It was decided that Korea would achieve self-governance after four years of international oversight. Nevertheless, both superpowers endorsed Korean governments aligned with their respective political ideologies, resulting in the establishment of interim administrations in the south led by Kim Kyu-shik (김규식) and  Syngman Rhee (이승만), which faced significant public unrest during elections.

The United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) prohibited strikes on December 8 and disbanded people's committees shortly thereafter. However, in September 1946, the Communist Party of Korea launched a  General Strike that began with railway workers in Busan and quickly expanded to other sectors, involving over 250,000 workers by September 24. In response, the USAMG conducted military operations against the strikers and supported right-wing anti-communist factions. A police shooting during a protest in Daegu on October 1 resulted in a worker's death, escalating tensions into the  'Autumn Uprising,' prompting the U.S. administration to impose martial law and respond violently to demonstrators, leading to numerous casualties.

Jeju inhabitants awaiting execution in late 1948

The Jeju Uprising commenced in April 1948 during the U.S. occupation, triggered by the assassination of 30 South Korean police officers by leftist radicals. This insurrection was incited by Pak Hon-yong (박혼영), a South Korean communist who had previously collaborated with  Kim Il-sung in Pyongyang. He urged leftist and communist factions south of the 38th parallel to resist the 1948 Korean elections through any means necessary, announcing a general strike set to begin on February 7. At that time, the communist Workers' Party of South Korea on Jeju had approximately 60,000 members on Jeju, supported by around 80,000 active sympathizers. These individuals not only participated in the strike but also engaged in violent confrontations with government forces.

The conflict intensified following South Korea's independence in August 1948, with President Syngman Rhee's administration largely quelling the uprising by May 1949. The violence resulted in significant atrocities committed by both sides, leading to an estimated death toll ranging from 14,000 to 30,000 individuals. The Jeju Uprising thus stands as a critical episode in Korean history, reflecting the deep-seated ideological divisions and the violent struggle for power during a tumultuous period.

First Republic of Korea

The First Republic of Korea (대한민국; 大韓民國), established on August 15, 1948, marked the beginning of South Korea's independent governance following the end of Japanese occupation and the subsequent United States Army Military Government. Syngman Rhee emerged as the inaugural president after the May 1948 elections, with the National Assembly enacting the nation's first constitution in July, which instituted a presidential system. Although the republic asserted sovereignty over the entirety of Korea, its jurisdiction was limited to the southern region below the 38th parallel until the Korean War concluded in 1953, resulting in a revised border. The regime was characterized by Rhee's authoritarian rule, widespread corruption, minimal economic progress, and a staunch anti-communist stance, which, by the late 1950s, led to increasing political unrest and public dissent against Rhee, culminating in the April Revolution of 1960 that forced his resignation and initiated the transition to the Second Republic of Korea.

Korean War

It is important to mention that numerous YouTube videos are available regarding the Korean War. I will provide links to several of them. These resources can offer valuable insights and perspectives on the conflict, enhancing understanding of its historical significance.

This is a photograph that shows extensive damage to Namdaemun, one of the former gates into the city of Seoul, Korea. A tank is parked near the gate. From: Gene Putnam. Ca. 1951

The Korean War, occurring from June 25, 1950, to July 27, 1953, was a significant military confrontation on the Korean Peninsula between North Korea, officially known as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), and South Korea, or the Republic of Korea (ROK), along with their respective allies. The DPRK received support from the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, while the ROK was backed by the United Nations Command (UNC), predominantly led by the United States. This conflict marked the first substantial proxy war of the Cold War era, concluding with an armistice in 1953 but lacking a formal peace treaty, which has perpetuated tensions on the peninsula.

Following the conclusion of World War II in 1945, Korea, previously under Japanese colonial rule for 35 years, was partitioned into two occupation zones by the Soviet Union and the United States at the 38th parallel, with intentions for future independence. However, due to political discord and external influences, these zones established separate governments in 1948. The DPRK, under Kim Il Sung in Pyongyang, and the ROK, led by Syngman Rhee in Seoul, both asserted claims to be the legitimate government of a unified Korea, resulting in border skirmishes exacerbated by communist agitation in the south. On June 25, 1950, the Korean People's Army (KPA), trained and equipped by the Soviets, invaded the south, prompting the UN Security Council to condemn the aggression and call for member states to assist in repelling the invasion, with UN forces comprising 21 nations and the United States contributing approximately 90% of the military personnel.

Seoul fell to enemy forces on June 28, and by early August, the Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) and its allies faced near defeat, confined to the Pusan Perimeter in the southeastern region of the peninsula. On September 15, United Nations forces executed a landing at Inchon, strategically severing the supply lines of the Korean People's Army (KPA). Following a breakout from the perimeter on September 18, UN forces reclaimed Seoul and initiated an invasion of North Korea in October, successfully capturing Pyongyang and advancing toward the Yalu River, which marks the border with China. The situation escalated on October 19 when the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) crossed the Yalu River, joining the conflict in support of North Korea. By December, UN forces were compelled to retreat from North Korea due to the PVA's aggressive offensives, and Seoul changed hands again in January 1951 before being retaken by UN forces two months later.

Delegates sign the Korean Armistice Agreement in P'anmunjŏm.

The Korean War concluded on July 27, 1953, with the signing of the Korean Armistice Agreement, which facilitated the exchange of prisoners and established a 4-kilometer-wide Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) along the front lines, including a Joint Security Area at Panmunjom. The conflict resulted in over 1 million military fatalities and an estimated 2 to 3 million civilian casualties. Allegations of war crimes emerged, including mass executions of suspected communists by the South and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by the North. North Korea became one of the most bombed nations in history, with extensive destruction of its major cities. The absence of a formal peace treaty has rendered the war a protracted and unresolved conflict.

Syngman Rhee

Syngman Rhee (이승만; 李承晚), born on March 26, 1875, and passing on July 19, 1965, was a prominent South Korean politician who held the position of the inaugural president of South Korea from 1948 until 1960. He is also recognized by his pen name, Unam (우남; 雩南). Rhee's political career included serving as the first and last president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea from 1919 until his impeachment in 1925, and again from 1947 to 1948. His presidency was marked by authoritarian governance, limited economic progress, and increasing political unrest and public dissent in the late 1950s.

Official portrait, 1948

Rhee was born in Hwanghae Province during the Joseon Dynasty and received his education at an American Methodist institution, where he converted to Christianity. He emerged as a Korean independence activist, facing imprisonment for his efforts in 1899. After his release in 1904, he relocated to the United States, earning degrees from various American universities and meeting President Theodore Roosevelt. Following a brief return to Korea from 1910 to 1912, he settled in Hawaii in 1913. In response to the Japanese crackdown on the March First Movement in 1919, Rhee became involved with the Korean Provisional Government in exile in Shanghai, serving as its first president until his impeachment in 1925. He later returned to the United States, where he campaigned for Korean independence, eventually moving to Washington, DC, in 1939. In 1945, he was brought back to US-occupied Korea by American forces, and on July 20, 1948, he was elected as the first president of the Republic of Korea by the National Assembly, marking the beginning of the First Republic of Korea.

During his presidency, Rhee maintained a staunch anti-communist and pro-American stance, which had defined his political career prior to taking office. His administration swiftly suppressed a communist uprising on Jeju Island and was responsible for the Mungyeong and Bodo League massacres, resulting in the deaths of over 100,000 individuals accused of communist sympathies. Rhee's tenure coincided with the onset of the Korean War (1950–1953), initiated by North Korea's invasion of South Korea. He notably declined to sign the armistice that concluded the conflict, advocating instead for the forceful reunification of the Korean Peninsula.

Following the war, South Korea's economy struggled in comparison to North Korea's and remained heavily dependent on American financial support. After winning re-election in 1956, Rhee sought to amend the constitution to eliminate the two-term limit, facing significant public opposition. He was re-elected uncontested in March 1960 after his rival, Chough Pyung-ok (조평옥), succumbed to cancer before the election. The subsequent victory of Rhee's ally, Lee Ki-poong (이기풍), in the vice-presidential race was met with allegations of electoral fraud, igniting widespread protests that culminated in the student-led April Revolution, during which police violence against demonstrators in Masan occurred. This unrest ultimately compelled Rhee to resign on April 26, leading to the establishment of the Second Republic of Korea. Despite his resignation, protests persisted, prompting a covert evacuation by the CIA on April 28, after which Rhee lived in exile in Honolulu, Hawaii, until his death from a stroke in 1965.

April Revolution

The April Revolution (4.19 혁명), also known as the April 19 Revolution or April 19 Movement, comprised widespread protests in South Korea against President Syngman Rhee and his First Republic from April 11 to 26, 1960, culminating in Rhee's resignation. The unrest began in Masan, a southeastern port city, initiated by student and labor organizations on April 11, following the revelation of a local high school student's death at the hands of police during prior demonstrations against fraudulent elections in March. Growing public dissatisfaction stemmed from Rhee's authoritarian governance, pervasive corruption, violent repression of dissent, and uneven economic development. The situation escalated into significant student protests in Seoul, which were met with brutal suppression, resulting in 186 fatalities over the two-week period. Rhee ultimately resigned on April 26 and sought refuge in the United States, paving the way for Yun Posun's (윤보선) leadership and the onset of the Second Republic of South Korea.

Background

Syngman Rhee served as the inaugural President of South Korea following the 1948 presidential election, guiding the nation through the transition from the United States Army Military Government to the establishment of the First Republic of Korea and leading during the Korean War. His administration, bolstered by American support during the Cold War, adopted a staunchly anti-communist and pro-American posture, utilizing the spectre of communism to justify severe repression of perceived dissent. Initially, this approach was tolerated due to concerns over political unity and potential reprisals; however, discontent grew after the Korean War's conclusion in 1953, as Rhee's government struggled to deliver meaningful economic and social progress, further alienating the populace by amending the constitution to extend his presidency. Consequently, Rhee became widely regarded as a corrupt and authoritarian figure, employing autocratic tactics and cronyism to sustain his regime.

Protesters during the April Revolution

In December 1958, Rhee maneuvered an amendment to the National Security Law through the National Assembly, which granted the government extensive new powers to restrict press freedoms and disenfranchise opposition members.

In 1959, Rhee experienced significant alarm and perceived threats when the United States slashed its economic assistance to South Korea, decreasing from $382,893,000 in 1957 to $222,204,000. This reduction prompted Rhee to adopt increasingly desperate strategies to maintain his political position.

The presidential election in March 1960 featured two primary opponents to Rhee: the minor Progressive Party, led by Cho Bong-am (조봉암), who had garnered one million votes in the 1956 election, and the Democratic Party, represented by Cho Pyong-ok (조평옥). In July 1959, Rhee accused Cho Bong-am of communist affiliations, leading to the latter's imprisonment and subsequent execution. Meanwhile, Cho Pyong-ok travelled to the United States for medical treatment but tragically died of a heart attack, raising public suspicions regarding the timing of these events.

Rhee was intent on securing the election of his ally, Lee Ki-poong, as Vice President, a position contested in a separate election on the same day. Lee faced off against Chang Myon, the Democratic Party candidate and former ambassador to the United States during the Korean War. On March 15, despite being largely incapacitated, Lee achieved an implausibly large victory, receiving 8,225,000 votes compared to Myon's 1,850,000. This outcome led to widespread allegations of electoral fraud, as reports indicated that Democratic rallies were banned nationwide and numerous pre-marked ballots were illegally inserted into ballot boxes on election day.

Masan protests and the death of Kim Ju-Yul

On March 15, coinciding with the announcement of election results, Democratic Party members in Masan organized a protest against alleged electoral corruption. Approximately one thousand residents gathered outside the party's local headquarters around 7:30 PM, where they faced a significant police presence amid a blackout of city lights. Tensions escalated as police began firing on the demonstrators, who retaliated by throwing rocks.

On April 11, a fisherman in Masan's harbour found the body of Kim Ju-yul (김주율), a student who had gone missing during the March 15 protests. Although authorities attributed his death to drowning, many disputed this claim after protesters entered the hospital where his body was held. They discovered that Kim had suffered a fatal injury from a tear-gas grenade, indicating that police had fired at a dangerously low angle. The regime's attempts to suppress news of this incident failed, as it was widely reported in the Korean press and gained international attention through AP. This event catalyzed a national movement against electoral corruption, leading to three days of intense protests in Masan and further violent confrontations with law enforcement. Rhee's administration attempted to divert blame by alleging communist involvement in the unrest.

March 15 50th Anniversary

Seoul protests

On April 18, protests erupted in Seoul, initiated by students from Korea University who organized a peaceful demonstration at the National Assembly to denounce police brutality and advocate for new elections. As they returned to their campus, they faced violent attacks from gangs allegedly financed by supporters of President Rhee.

The following day, known as "Bloody Tuesday," more than 100,000 students from high schools and universities marched towards the Blue House, demanding Rhee's resignation. In response, police opened fire on the crowd, resulting in approximately 180 fatalities and thousands of injuries. To quell the unrest, the Rhee administration declared martial law.

By April 25, the protests had escalated significantly, with professors joining students and citizens, creating a movement that outnumbered both soldiers and police, who chose not to engage with the demonstrators. On April 26, 1960, Rhee resigned, with Lee Ki-poong being held accountable for widespread governmental corruption. The subsequent day saw the resignations of the Minister of Interior and the Chief of Security, who took responsibility for the violent Masan incident. Tragically, on April 28, Lee Ki-poong's son committed a murder-suicide involving his family in Rhee's mansion.

Aftermath

The resignation of Rhee and the subsequent death of Lee Ki-poong marked the conclusion of the Liberal Party's governance. Rhee was exiled to Hawaii on May 29, 1960, with the expectation of a brief absence; however, he was unable to return due to widespread public dissent. This transition led to the establishment of the Second Republic of South Korea, which implemented a parliamentary system designed to diminish presidential authority. Yun Bo-seon was elected president on August 13, 1960, but actual power resided with the prime minister, Chang Myon.

First post-revolution trial began July 5th in South Korea for thirty former high officials of the Rhee regime on charges of corruption, maladministration, and election rigging, etc.

An investigative committee of the National Assembly determined that the police's gunfire aimed at the crowd was intended to kill rather than disperse the protesters. During a subsequent criminal trial, it was disclosed that Park Jong-pyo, the Chief of Public Security, had weighted Kim Ju-yul's corpse with rocks and disposed of it in the Masan area to prevent it from surfacing. Park received a life sentence for his role in Kim's death, one of many individuals sentenced by a revolutionary tribunal for various offenses, including several who faced capital punishment. Among those executed were officials who had authorized the police action, including Secretary of the Interior Choi In-Kyu (최인규) and Kwak Yong-ju, the presidential security chief, both of whom were hanged on December 21, 1961.

On May 16, 1961, amid ongoing political turmoil, General Park Chung Hee (박정희) executed a coup d'état that dismantled the brief Second Republic of South Korea, establishing a military junta that would evolve into the autocratic Third Republic. Rhee passed away in Honolulu on July 19, 1965, at the age of 90, at 19:35 Korean time.

Second Republic of Korea

The Second Republic of Korea (제2공화국), established from April 1960 to May 1961, marked a significant political transition in South Korea following the mass protests of the April Revolution against President Syngman Rhee. This government succeeded the First Republic and introduced a parliamentary system, with Yun Posun as President and Chang Myon as Prime Minister. It aimed to dismantle Rhee's authoritarian regime, promote liberal democracy, and initiate the first Five-Year Plans to revitalize the previously overlooked economy. However, after just thirteen months, the Second Republic was overthrown by a military coup on May 16, led by Park Chung Hee, which resulted in the establishment of a provisional military government under the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction, paving the way for the Third Republic of Korea. Notably, the Second Republic remains the sole instance of a parliamentary government in Korea's history.

Yun Po-sun

Yun Po-sun (윤보선; August 26, 1897 – July 18, 1990) was a prominent South Korean politician and activist who held the office of the second president of South Korea from 1960 to 1962. His presidency was characterized by its limited authority, as he primarily functioned as a symbolic leader within the framework of the parliamentary system established during the brief Second Republic of Korea.

Official portrait, 1960

Yun's political journey commenced in the aftermath of World War II, where he initially served as Secretary to the Chief of Staff in 1947, followed by his appointment as Mayor of Seoul in 1948. He took on the role of Commerce Minister in the newly independent Korea from 1949 to 1950. In 1955, he played a crucial role in founding the South Korean  Democratic Party. However, his presidency came to an abrupt end when he was ousted by Park Chung Hee following the May 16 coup in 1961.

Yun's political involvement began in 1945, shortly after Korea's liberation. He was mentored by Dr. Syngman Rhee, the first President of South Korea and a Princeton University alumnus. By 1947, Yun had ascended to the position of Secretary to the Chief of Staff, and in 1948, he was appointed Mayor of Seoul. His subsequent role as Minister of Commerce and Industry was marked by growing dissent against Rhee's authoritarian governance, leading to his election to the National Assembly in 1954 and his co-founding of the opposition South Korean Democratic Party the following year.

Chang Myon

Chang Myon (장면; 張勉; August 28, 1899 – June 4, 1966) was a prominent South Korean figure known for his roles as a statesman, educator, diplomat, journalist, and social activist, as well as a Roman Catholic youth leader. He served as the sole prime minister during the parliamentary Second Republic and was the fourth and final vice president of South Korea in the First Republic. His artistic name was Unseok (운석), and he was known in English as John Chang Myon.

Chang c. 1955

During the period of Japanese occupation, Chang contributed to education as a teacher, administrator, and principal. In 1948, he represented the Republic of Korea at the UN General Assembly and became the nation's first ambassador to the United States in 1949. He played a crucial role in advocating for U.S. and UN military support during the Korean War in 1950. Following the student-led April Revolution that ousted Syngman Rhee, he was elected Prime Minister of the Second Republic in 1960, leading the government until it was overthrown by Park Chung Hee's military coup on May 16, 1961.

May 16 Coup

The military coup d'état (5·16 군사정변) on May 16, 1961, in South Korea was orchestrated by Park Chung Hee and his associates, who established the Military Revolutionary Committee, nominally under the leadership of Army Chief of Staff Chang Do-yong, who consented to the coup on that day. This event effectively dismantled the democratically elected government led by Prime Minister Chang Myon and President Yun Posun marking the end of the Second Republic and the establishment of a military Supreme Council for National Reconstruction, with Park assuming the role of chairman following Chang's arrest in July.

1961. 5.16 Park Jung Hee

This coup played a crucial role in the emergence of a new developmentalist elite and set the stage for South Korea's rapid industrialization under Park's regime. However, its legacy remains contentious due to the significant curtailment of democracy and civil liberties that accompanied it, along with the subsequent purges. While Park and his supporters referred to the event as the "May 16 Military Revolution," framing it as a significant national awakening, the characterization of the coup as a "revolution" is debated, and its assessment continues to provoke differing opinions.

Background and causes

The context surrounding the coup can be examined through both its immediate circumstances and the broader evolution of South Korea following liberation. While the challenging economic and political environment of the Second Republic fostered conditions conducive to military intervention, the origins of the coup trace back to the latter years of Rhee's administration. Scholars such as Yong-Sup Han contend that the prevailing interpretation of the coup as merely a reaction to the instability of a nascent regime is overly simplistic.

South Korea under Syngman Rhee

Beginning in 1948, South Korea was under the leadership of President Syngman Rhee, an ardent anti-Communist who leveraged the Korean War to establish a dominant hold on political authority within the nation. Rhee's administration was characterized by the interests of a conservative elite, often referred to as "liberation aristocrats," who had gained prominence during the American occupation. This group constituted the majority of the political landscape, including both Rhee's allies and adversaries within the Democratic Party, which shared a vision of society that closely mirrored Rhee's own. To eliminate substantial opposition, Rhee orchestrated the execution of Cho Bong-am, a candidate who had garnered approximately 30% of the vote in the 1956 presidential elections with a platform advocating for peaceful reunification, a level of support deemed intolerable for an opposition figure.

“Combat-ready leathernecks of the Korean Marine Corps march to the capitol after the successful bloodless coup.” 1962-05-17.

Notably, even prominent opposition leaders like Cho were part of a broader conservative consensus among the ruling elite, which was grounded in a traditional Confucian perspective that dismissed concepts of ideological pluralism and equality in human relations as alien. This worldview emphasized the importance of paternalistic governance and extensive political patronage networks. Within this traditional framework, Rhee was regarded as the principal "elder" of Korean society, to whom citizens owed familial loyalty, a bond further reinforced by the obligations linking him to many members of the ruling class.

The governance of the "liberation aristocrats" resulted in a stagnation of development in South Korea, contrasting sharply with the advancements seen in neighbouring Japan. Although South Korea had experienced significant development during the Japanese colonial period, the presidency of Rhee was characterized by a lack of substantial economic initiatives, leaving the nation impoverished and predominantly agrarian. This stagnation spurred a rising nationalistic intellectual movement that advocated for a comprehensive societal overhaul and a complete political and economic transformation. At this juncture, Park Chung Hee, a relatively low-ranking army officer with uncertain political affiliations, became notably influenced by the emerging intellectual discourse advocating for change.

Social and economic problems of the Second Republic

Following the manipulated elections of March 1960, escalating protests culminated in the April Revolution, which led to Rhee's forced resignation on April 26 under pressure from the United States. With Rhee's departure, a new constitution was enacted, establishing the Second Republic, and the legislative elections held on June 29 resulted in a significant victory for the Democratic Party, while Rhee's Liberal Party was reduced to only two seats in the newly formed lower house of the  National Assembly. The Second Republic implemented a parliamentary system, designating a ceremonial president as the head of state, while actual executive authority was concentrated in the prime minister and the cabinet. In August, Democrat Yun Posun was elected president, with former vice-president Chang Myon appointed as prime minister.

Chun Doo-hwan (전두환), demonstration in support of the May 16 military coup

The Second Republic faced significant challenges from its inception, characterized by intense factionalism within the ruling Democratic Party and persistent public discontent. The South Korean economy suffered from rampant inflation and soaring unemployment, with crime rates more than doubling during this period. For instance, between December 1960 and April 1961, rice prices surged by 60%, while unemployment rates remained above 23%, leading to widespread food shortages. Chang, representing the Democratic Party's "New Faction," ascended to the position of prime minister by a mere three-vote margin. However, his purges of Rhee's appointees were perceived as ineffective, as he manipulated the suspect list to favour affluent businessmen and influential generals. Despite the removal of Rhee and the establishment of a democratic constitution, the entrenched "liberation aristocrats" continued to wield power, exacerbating the already dire situation in South Korea.

The disintegration of South Korean political structures, coupled with the administrative purges affecting the military, severely undermined the morale of the Military Security Command, which was responsible for maintaining military discipline and addressing insubordination. This hesitance to take decisive action created an environment conducive to the planning and execution of a coup. The myriad issues plaguing the Second Republic provided a fertile ground for such a coup to be organized and ultimately realized.

Factionalism in the military

A significant contributor to the coup's emergence was the internal factionalism within the South Korean army, which was among the largest globally, comprising 600,000 personnel at that time. The military's identity was shaped by a blend of Japanese and later American training, which merged the Japanese militarist ethos with American technical efficiency. This transformation expanded the military's role from merely defending against communist threats to actively participating in the nation-building process. Reform-minded junior officers perceived the senior leadership as tainted by political affiliations, a situation exacerbated by a stagnation in promotions due to the consolidation of senior command positions following the Korean War's rapid expansion.

Additionally, the military was fragmented along regional lines and among factions of officers from the same educational backgrounds. The most prominent divisions arose between those who graduated from the Japanese Military Academy and the Manchurian officers' school in Xinjing, while lower-ranking officers were further divided based on their graduation classes from the post-liberation  Korean Military Academy. Park, having attended all three institutions, was strategically positioned to spearhead the coup coalition, leveraging his extensive connections with both senior military leaders and younger factions.

Maj. Gen. Park Chung-hee (left) stands with his lieutenants in front of Seoul City Hall after seizing power in a coup on May 16, 1961. (Korea Herald file photo).

Following the fall of the Rhee administration and the establishment of the Second Republic, reformist factions, primarily composed of KMA graduates, began advocating for accountability among senior military leaders implicated in the manipulation of the 1956 and 1960 presidential elections. Major General Park, positioned relatively high within the military hierarchy, publicly aligned himself with the reformists, calling for the resignation of Army Chief of Staff Song Yo-chan on May 2. Subsequently, on September 24, a group of 16 colonels, spearheaded by Kim Jong-pil, demanded the resignation of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of Staff Choi Yong-hui, an event referred to as the "revolt against seniors" (하극상 사건; 下剋上事件). At this juncture, plans for a coup were already in motion, further expedited by the aforementioned revolt.

Course of events

On the morning of May 16, a plot was once again exposed, prompting swift measures from the authorities. The Counter-Intelligence Command issued a warning regarding a potential mutiny, leading to the deployment of military police to apprehend those suspected of involvement. Park relocated to the Sixth District Army Headquarters, now known as Mullae Park, to oversee the coup operations personally and to attempt to salvage the initiative. In a rallying speech to the gathered soldiers, he articulated the dire state of the nation, criticizing the civilian government for its corruption and urging the military to rise against it in a bid to restore order without resorting to violence.

The impact of Park's address was profound, resulting in even the military police, initially sent to suppress the uprising, defecting to his side. With control of the Sixth District Army secured, Park appointed Colonel Kim Jae-chun to lead the initial phase of the occupation of Seoul. He also communicated with Chang Do-yong, compelling him to align with the coup or face repercussions for his ties to the civilian administration. Subsequently, Park proceeded to the Special Warfare Command, where he directed operations to cross the Han River and seize the presidential residence at the Blue House.

An artillery brigade established control over the central Army Headquarters and secured the northern downtown areas of Seoul, situated north of the Han River. By 4:15 AM, following a brief confrontation with loyalist military police stationed at the Han bridge, Park's forces successfully occupied the administrative buildings of all three government branches. They then proceeded to seize the headquarters of the Korean Broadcasting System (KBS), where they announced the formation of the Military Revolutionary Committee and their assumption of power.

General Lee Han-lim, the only commanding officer to declare public opposition to the coup.

The proclamation articulated the military's rationale for the coup, stating that the authorities could no longer avoid conflict and had initiated a coordinated operation to take control of the government. The military justified their actions by asserting that the nation's future could not be entrusted to a corrupt and ineffective regime, and emphasized the necessity for the armed forces to guide the country, which they believed had strayed dangerously off course.

The broadcast further delineated the coup's policy goals, which included a staunch anti-communist stance, the strengthening of relations with the United States, the eradication of political corruption, the establishment of a self-sufficient national economy, the pursuit of Korean reunification, and the removal of the current political leadership. Although the proclamation was issued in the name of Chang Do-yong, identified as the committee's chairman, it was done without his prior consent. As dawn approached, a marine corps unit led by Kim Yun-geun crossed the Han River and took control of the Blue House as per orders.

The civilian government swiftly collapsed following the coup. Prime Minister Chang Myon fled Seoul upon learning of the takeover, while President Yun Posun resigned himself to the situation, continuing as a nominal leader until 1963, albeit devoid of real authority. Commander Lee Han-lim of the First Army had initially planned to mobilize reserves to counter the coup but ultimately retreated to avert a potential North Korean incursion, leading to his arrest two days later. With twenty heavily armed divisions backing the coup in Seoul, any hope of suppression was effectively extinguished. After three days in hiding, Chang Myon emerged to announce the resignation of his entire cabinet, transferring power to the new junta. Army cadets paraded through the streets in support of the coup, and Chang Do-yong accepted his role as chairman of the committee, thereby legitimizing its authority. The May 16 coup was thus fully realized.

Aftermath

The process of establishing a new government commenced promptly following the completion of the coup, with martial law being enacted immediately. On May 20, the Military Revolutionary Committee was rebranded as the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction (SCNR), and a new cabinet was formed the next day. Chang Do-yong, who served as the committee's chairman, retained his position as Army Chief of Staff while also assuming the roles of Prime Minister and Defence Minister, thereby becoming the formal leader of the administration. The SCNR was structured as a junta comprising the 30 highest-ranking military officials, organized into 14 subcommittees, and was endowed with extensive powers, including the authority to enact laws, appoint cabinet members, and oversee the overall administration.

The leaders of the Military Revolutionary Committee pictured on 20 May, four days after the coup: chairman Chang Do-yong (left) and vice-chairman Park Chung Hee (right).

However, the formation of the new cabinet was marred by a fierce internal power struggle, which Park swiftly navigated to consolidate authority. On June 6, the SCNR enacted the Law Regarding Extraordinary Measures for National Reconstruction, which effectively removed Chang from his roles as Defense Minister and Army Chief of Staff. This legislation was largely crafted by Yi Seok-che, who was acting under Park's directive to "eliminate" Chang. Subsequently, on June 10, the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction Law was passed, designating the deputy chairman of the SCNR as the head of its standing committee, thereby augmenting Park's powers. Ultimately, on July 3, Chang was arrested on charges of conspiring to instigate a counter-coup, and the June 10 law was revised to enable Park to take on the dual role of chairman of both the SCNR and its Standing Committee.

Legacy and evaluation

The coup on May 16 marked the beginning of a succession of military governments that persisted in various forms until 1993. It set a precedent for subsequent coups, including those on December 12 and May 17, orchestrated by Chun Doo-hwan, who succeeded Park. The emergence of a unified opposition during Park's regime, culminating in the Gwangju Democratization Movement post-1980, led to significant debate regarding the coup. Critics, including figures like Kim Dae Jung, condemned it as an unjustified act of violence that dismantled South Korea's first authentic democratic government, while others highlighted its positive outcomes, such as the rapid industrialization noted in a 1994 Freedom House report.

In the official narrative prior to 1993, the coup was termed the "May 16 Revolution" (5·16 혁명; 五一六革命) However, under the reformist leadership of Kim Young-sam, who had previously been an opposition figure, it was reclassified as a coup or military insurrection (군사 정변; 軍事政變). Park characterized the "May Revolution" as an essential act of self-defence for the Korean populace, and the military regimes' historiography framed it as a manifestation of national will. Kim Young-sam's reinterpretation challenged this perspective, simultaneously acknowledging the April 1960 protests as the "April Revolution."

This reinterpretation gained traction between 1994 and 1995 through educational reforms and the publication of history textbooks that adopted the new terminology. The shift in labelling reflects a broader societal reassessment of the events surrounding the coup and its implications for South Korea's political landscape. The evolving narrative underscores the complexities of historical memory and the ongoing struggle over the interpretation of pivotal moments in the nation's history.

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The second part of this episode will be available soon. Due to unexpected challenges in saving the complete episode, it has been split into two segments. In the upcoming part 2, I will discuss the Third Republic of Korea, accompanied by videos at the conclusion that address the events covered. I also urge readers to pursue additional independent research to deepen their comprehension of this facet of Korean history.