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The History of Korean Male Groups – From Yeonhee Professional Singers’ Quartet to BTS -> Pt. 6.5/? (Rewrite)

In Part 6.5 of The History of Korean Male Groups, I will conclude the discussion initiated in Part 6 and begin exploring the Third Republic of Korea, which lasted from 1963 to 1972. This era is marked by significant historical events that continue to influence contemporary discussions and are intricately connected to the contributions of Korean artists from that time. A summary of these events will be provided, along with relevant videos at the end of this post; however, I urge readers to pursue additional independent research to deepen their comprehension of this facet of Korean history.

Third Republic of Korea

The Third Republic of Korea, which existed from December 1963 to November 1972, emerged following the disbandment of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction that had toppled the Second Republic and instituted a military regime in May 1961. Park Chung Hee (박정희), who served as the Chairman of the Supreme Council, was elected as the President of South Korea during the presidential election of 1963.

Although the Third Republic was ostensibly characterized by a return to civilian governance through the National Assembly, it functioned as a dictatorship dominated by Park, members of the Supreme Council, and the Democratic Republican Party. . The regime emphasized economic growth, anti-communism, and the enhancement of relations with the United States and Japan. Park secured re-election in 1967 and, with the National Assembly's support, amended the constitution to enable a third term, which he won in 1971. In December 1971, he declared a state of emergency and later proposed reunification with North Korea in July 1972. The October Restoration in 1972 saw the imposition of martial law, the dissolution of the National Assembly, and the announcement of a new constitutional framework. The Third Republic ultimately ended with the ratification of the Yusin Constitution in November 1972, leading to the establishment of the Fourth Republic of Korea.

Park Chung Hee

Park Chung Hee (박정희; November 14, 1917 – October 26, 1979) was a prominent South Korean politician and military officer who held the position of the third president of South Korea from 1962 until his assassination in 1979, following his rise to power through the May 16 coup in 1961. He is often considered one of the most influential figures in Korean history, although his legacy as a military dictator remains a subject of debate.

Prior to his presidency, Park served as the second-highest-ranking officer in the South Korean army. His coup effectively ended the interim Second Republic of Korea, and after two years as the head of the military junta, he was elected president in 1963, marking the beginning of the Third Republic. A staunch anti-communist, he fostered strong relations with the United States, which had maintained a significant military presence in South Korea since the Korean War. He endorsed American military actions in Southeast Asia and dispatched South Korean forces to Vietnam shortly after assuming power. Park implemented a series of economic reforms that resulted in remarkable economic growth and industrialization, a period now referred to as the Miracle on the Han River. This transformation positioned South Korea as one of the fastest-growing economies during the 1960s and 1970s, though it came at the expense of labor rights. Additionally, this period saw the emergence of chaebols, state-supported family-owned conglomerates akin to Japan's zaibatsu, with notable examples including Hyundai, LG, and Samsung.

Official presidential portrait, 1970s

Park's prominence, which peaked in the 1960s, began to decline in the 1970s, marked by narrow electoral victories in the 1971 presidential and subsequent legislative elections. In 1972, he imposed martial law following a self-coup and enacted the authoritarian Yushin Constitution, establishing the Fourth Republic. As a dictator, Park suppressed political dissent, exerted control over the military, and regulated media and artistic expression. His assassination in 1979 by Kim Jae-gyu (김재규), the KCIA director, occurred in the context of the Busan–Masan Uprising, leaving the nature of the act—spontaneous or premeditated—ambiguous. Despite the political upheaval following his death, economic growth persisted, leading to Choi Kyu-hah's (최규하) brief presidency before Chun Doo-Hwan’s (전두환) military takeover. The eventual democratization of South Korea was realized through the  June Democratic Struggle in 1987.

Park's legacy remains contentious within South Korean political discussions, complicating objective assessments of his administration. While some acknowledge his role in fostering economic development that transformed South Korea, others condemn his authoritarian governance, particularly post-1971, for compromising civil liberties and human rights in favour of economic stability and social order. A Gallup Korea survey in October 2021 identified Park, alongside former adversaries Kim Dae-jung (김대중) and Roh Moo-hyun (노무현), as among the most positively regarded presidents in South Korean history, particularly among conservatives and older demographics. His daughter, Park Geun-hye (박근혜), later became the 11th president of South Korea, serving from 2013 until her impeachment and conviction on corruption charges in 2017.

Rise to power

On April 26, 1960, Syngman Rhee, the first president of South Korea, was ousted from power and forced into exile due to the April Revolution, a movement primarily driven by students. Later that year, on July 29, Yun Po-sun was elected president; however, the actual authority resided with Prime Minister Chang Myon. The new administration faced immediate challenges, as neither leader could secure the loyalty of a significant faction within the Democratic Party or agree on cabinet appointments. In an effort to maintain the fragile coalition, Prime Minister Chang reshuffled cabinet positions three times within a span of five months.

The newly established government grappled with an economy plagued by years of mismanagement and corruption during Rhee's tenure, while simultaneously facing pressure from the student activists who had played a crucial role in his removal. Demonstrations became a common occurrence, with protesters demanding extensive political and economic reforms. The situation was exacerbated by a decline in public safety and widespread distrust of the police, which had been closely aligned with Rhee's regime, leading to a loss of support for the ruling Democratic Party amid ongoing factional disputes.

Park Chung-hee shook hands with General Guy S. Meloy Jr. during his visit to the United Nations Command in 1961.

In this climate of unrest and division, Major General Park established the Military Revolutionary Committee. Anticipating his imminent retirement, he accelerated the committee's plans, culminating in a military coup on May 16, 1961, which was ostensibly led by Army Chief of Staff Chang Do-yong, who defected on the day of the coup. Following this upheaval, Chang Myon announced his resignation along with his cabinet on May 18. Yun Po-sun accepted the coup and successfully convinced the United States Eighth Army and various commanders of the Republic of Korea Army to refrain from intervening in the transition of power.

A new administration emerged from military officers loyal to Park, with General Chang nominally at the helm of the reformist military Supreme Council for National Reconstruction. However, after Chang's arrest in July 1961, Park assumed full control of the council. The coup was generally embraced by a populace weary of ongoing political instability.

Following the coup, Park was elevated to the rank of Lieutenant General. Historian Hwang Moon Kyung characterized Park's governance as distinctly "militaristic," emphasizing his early efforts to organize South Korean society along militaristic principles. One of his initial initiatives involved a campaign to "clean up" urban areas, which included arresting the homeless and assigning them to work in "welfare centers." American historian Carter Eckert noted that the historiography surrounding Park often overlooks the significant influence of his militaristic worldview on his approach to South Korea's modernization, as well as the impact of Japanese militarism on his establishment of what is referred to as a "developmental dictatorship." Eckert described South Korea under Park as one of the most militarized states globally, highlighting his unprecedented efforts to instil militarization within South Korean society.

Within the Imperial Japanese Army, there existed a conviction that the principles of bushido would imbue Japanese soldiers with an indomitable spirit, rendering them invulnerable in combat. The Japanese perceived warfare primarily as a contest of will, where the side possessing the greater resolve would inevitably triumph. Park, influenced by his training under Japanese officers, often expressed the belief that "we can do anything if we try," positing that sheer willpower could surmount any challenge. Interviews conducted by Eckert with Park's close associates revealed a consensus that Park's formative experiences in officer training in Manchukuo were pivotal to his character, with his friends asserting that understanding his values necessitated an appreciation of his Ilbonsik sagwan kyoyuk, reflective of the ethos of an Imperial Japanese Army officer.

On June 19, 1961, the military council established the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA) to thwart counter-coups and neutralize perceived threats, both internal and external. The KCIA was endowed with investigative powers and the authority to arrest individuals suspected of misconduct or harbouring anti-government views. Under the leadership of its inaugural director, retired Brigadier General Kim Jong-pil, who was related to Park and a key architect of the coup, the agency expanded its influence into economic and foreign affairs, thereby consolidating its role in the governance of South Korea.

Park with U.S. President John F. Kennedy in Washington, D.C., on November 14, 1961.

President Yun's tenure provided a veneer of legitimacy to the military regime. Following his resignation on March 24, 1962, Lt. General Park, who was the chairman of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction, seized the opportunity to strengthen his authority by assuming the role of acting president and receiving a promotion to full general. Under pressure from the Kennedy administration, Park committed to reinstating civilian governance.

In 1963, he successfully ran for president as the nominee of the newly established Democratic Republican Party, appointing Park Myung-keun, the party's Vice Leader, as the head of the President's Office. Park won the election against former President Yun, representing the Civil Rule Party, by a narrow margin of just over 156,000 votes, equating to a 1.5 percent lead. He would later secure re-election in 1967, again defeating Yun, albeit with a slightly less challenging campaign.

Yushin Constitution

The governance of the Fourth Republic was characterized by the Yushin Constitution, a framework that drew its nomenclature from the concept of "restoration," akin to the Japanese Meiji Restoration (明治���新, Meiji-ishin), which facilitated Japan's emergence as a global power in the late 19th century. This term Yushin (유신; 維新) implies a significant imperial connotation, reflecting the concentration of power in the presidency, which was a hallmark of the Yushin Constitution. Under this regime, President Park held substantial authority, effectively centralizing governance and diminishing the role of other political entities.

The Yushin Constitution established a highly authoritarian political structure, endowing the president with extensive executive and legislative powers. The presidential term was extended to six years without restrictions on re-election, and the election process was manipulated through an electoral college, the National Conference for Unification, which was designed to limit candidates to a single choice. The president's authority included the ability to suspend constitutional rights and govern by decree, while the National Assembly's power was severely curtailed, as the president could dissolve it at will and appoint a significant portion of its members. This arrangement effectively transformed Park's presidency into a legal dictatorship, leading to widespread but ultimately futile protests against the regime.

Park contended that Western-style liberal democracy was ill-suited for South Korea due to its nascent economic status. He proposed that a "Korean-style democracy," characterized by a robust and unchallenged presidency, was essential for maintaining national stability.

On November 21, 1972, the Yushin Constitution was ratified in a South Korean constitutional referendum, receiving an extraordinary 92.3% approval from a turnout of 91.9%. This constitution led to the dissolution of the Third Republic and the establishment of the Fourth Republic of Korea. Park was re-elected unopposed for both a fourth term in 1972 and a fifth term in 1978.

The Fourth Republic experienced increased instability as Park's popularity waned and his autocratic governance became more overt during the 1970s. The Yushin Constitution facilitated legal and open violations of civil liberties, particularly aimed at quelling growing opposition, which in turn intensified resistance against his regime. Despite Park's repeated assurances of a transition to full democracy, scepticism regarding his intentions prevailed.

Some Documentaries

Numerous videos document the events of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. I recommend seeking out additional videos related to the aforementioned events for a more comprehensive understanding.

Note this video is 7 hours long

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The History of Korean Male Groups – From Yeonhee Professional Singers’ Quartet to BTS -> Pt. 6/? (Rewrite)

In Part 6 of The History of Korean Male Groups, the discussion will commence with the era following the Japanese occupation, highlighting the influence of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) and the establishment of the First, Second, and Third Republic of Korea, which spanned from 1948 to 1972. These significant historical events have enduring effects on contemporary discourse and are closely linked to the contributions of Korean artists who emerged during this period. A summary of these occurrences will be included, along with videos at the end of this post that pertain to the discussed events; however, I encourage readers to engage in further independent research to enhance their understanding of this aspect of Korean history.

Division of Korea

Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea

The Korean Provisional Government (KPG), officially known as the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, operated as a government in exile in China during the period of Japanese occupation. Established in Shanghai on April 11, 1919, the KPG enacted a provisional constitution that outlined a democratic republic, the "Republic of Korea," featuring a presidential system and three branches of government: legislative, administrative, and judicial. The KPG claimed the territory of the former Korean Empire and was bolstered by the Korean resistance movement, which received support from the Kuomintang (Guomindang; 中國國民黨), the Soviet Union, and France. Following 1932, the KPG relocated several times before ultimately settling in Chongqing until the conclusion of World War II in 1945, with several of its headquarters in Shanghai and Chongqing now preserved as museums.

The KPG's existence concluded with Japan's surrender on August 15, 1945, prompting its members to return to Korea. There, they established political organizations under the American military administration and vied for influence in what would evolve into South Korea. On August 15, 1948, Syngman Rhee, who had served as the first president of the KPG, was inaugurated as the first President of the Republic of Korea. The current South Korean government asserts continuity with the KPG through the 1987-amended constitution, although this claim has been a subject of debate among scholars and historians.

People's Republic of Korea

The People's Republic of Korea (PRK) (조선인민공화국) was a provisional government established briefly following Japan's surrender at the conclusion of World War II. It was officially announced on September 6, 1945, during the division of Korea into two occupation zones, with the Soviet Union controlling the northern region and the United States overseeing the south. The PRK was founded on a framework of people's committees and aimed to promote the democratization of both society and the economy.

Associate Chairman Lyuh Woon-hyung (류운형) giving a speech at a YMCA in Gyeongseong (16 August 1945).

On December 12, 1945, the US military government in the south deemed the PRK to be illegitimate. Meanwhile, in the north, Soviet authorities assumed control of the PRK by appointing pro-Soviet Korean communists, including Kim Il-sung (김일성), to key positions, thereby integrating it into the political framework of the nascent Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea).

United States Army Military Government in Korea

The United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) (재조선 미국 육군사령부 군정청) served as the governing authority for the southern region of the Korean Peninsula from September 8, 1945, until August 15, 1948. This era was marked by significant political and economic instability, largely stemming from the lingering impacts of Japanese colonial rule, which affected both the southern and northern zones of Korea.

The discontent among the populace was exacerbated by the U.S. military government's alignment with remnants of the Japanese administration, including the retention of former Japanese officials as advisors. Additionally, the suppression of the People's Republic of Korea and the endorsement of United Nations elections that further divided the nation contributed to the unrest. The U.S. military's lack of preparation for governance, coupled with their unfamiliarity with the local language and political dynamics, led to policies that often-had destabilizing consequences, further complicated by the influx of approximately 400,000 refugees from the north and returning expatriates.

Anti-trusteeship movement [ko] protest, December 1945

Key Events

In response to increasing public dissatisfaction, Hodge established the Korean Advisory Council in October 1945. The Council predominantly comprised members from the Korean Democratic Party, which had been formed with U.S. support and was largely composed of affluent landowners, business elites, and former colonial officials. Although a few representatives from the People's Republic of Korea were invited to participate, they declined and criticized the Council members for their collaboration with Japanese authorities.

A proposal for a long-term  trusteeship over Korea emerged in 1945, leading to an agreement in December between the United States and the Soviet Union to jointly administer the country through the U.S.–Soviet Joint Commission, as established at the  Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers. It was decided that Korea would achieve self-governance after four years of international oversight. Nevertheless, both superpowers endorsed Korean governments aligned with their respective political ideologies, resulting in the establishment of interim administrations in the south led by Kim Kyu-shik (김규식) and  Syngman Rhee (이승만), which faced significant public unrest during elections.

The United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) prohibited strikes on December 8 and disbanded people's committees shortly thereafter. However, in September 1946, the Communist Party of Korea launched a  General Strike that began with railway workers in Busan and quickly expanded to other sectors, involving over 250,000 workers by September 24. In response, the USAMG conducted military operations against the strikers and supported right-wing anti-communist factions. A police shooting during a protest in Daegu on October 1 resulted in a worker's death, escalating tensions into the  'Autumn Uprising,' prompting the U.S. administration to impose martial law and respond violently to demonstrators, leading to numerous casualties.

Jeju inhabitants awaiting execution in late 1948

The Jeju Uprising commenced in April 1948 during the U.S. occupation, triggered by the assassination of 30 South Korean police officers by leftist radicals. This insurrection was incited by Pak Hon-yong (박혼영), a South Korean communist who had previously collaborated with  Kim Il-sung in Pyongyang. He urged leftist and communist factions south of the 38th parallel to resist the 1948 Korean elections through any means necessary, announcing a general strike set to begin on February 7. At that time, the communist Workers' Party of South Korea on Jeju had approximately 60,000 members on Jeju, supported by around 80,000 active sympathizers. These individuals not only participated in the strike but also engaged in violent confrontations with government forces.

The conflict intensified following South Korea's independence in August 1948, with President Syngman Rhee's administration largely quelling the uprising by May 1949. The violence resulted in significant atrocities committed by both sides, leading to an estimated death toll ranging from 14,000 to 30,000 individuals. The Jeju Uprising thus stands as a critical episode in Korean history, reflecting the deep-seated ideological divisions and the violent struggle for power during a tumultuous period.

First Republic of Korea

The First Republic of Korea (대한민국; 大韓民國), established on August 15, 1948, marked the beginning of South Korea's independent governance following the end of Japanese occupation and the subsequent United States Army Military Government. Syngman Rhee emerged as the inaugural president after the May 1948 elections, with the National Assembly enacting the nation's first constitution in July, which instituted a presidential system. Although the republic asserted sovereignty over the entirety of Korea, its jurisdiction was limited to the southern region below the 38th parallel until the Korean War concluded in 1953, resulting in a revised border. The regime was characterized by Rhee's authoritarian rule, widespread corruption, minimal economic progress, and a staunch anti-communist stance, which, by the late 1950s, led to increasing political unrest and public dissent against Rhee, culminating in the April Revolution of 1960 that forced his resignation and initiated the transition to the Second Republic of Korea.

Korean War

It is important to mention that numerous YouTube videos are available regarding the Korean War. I will provide links to several of them. These resources can offer valuable insights and perspectives on the conflict, enhancing understanding of its historical significance.

This is a photograph that shows extensive damage to Namdaemun, one of the former gates into the city of Seoul, Korea. A tank is parked near the gate. From: Gene Putnam. Ca. 1951

The Korean War, occurring from June 25, 1950, to July 27, 1953, was a significant military confrontation on the Korean Peninsula between North Korea, officially known as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), and South Korea, or the Republic of Korea (ROK), along with their respective allies. The DPRK received support from the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, while the ROK was backed by the United Nations Command (UNC), predominantly led by the United States. This conflict marked the first substantial proxy war of the Cold War era, concluding with an armistice in 1953 but lacking a formal peace treaty, which has perpetuated tensions on the peninsula.

Following the conclusion of World War II in 1945, Korea, previously under Japanese colonial rule for 35 years, was partitioned into two occupation zones by the Soviet Union and the United States at the 38th parallel, with intentions for future independence. However, due to political discord and external influences, these zones established separate governments in 1948. The DPRK, under Kim Il Sung in Pyongyang, and the ROK, led by Syngman Rhee in Seoul, both asserted claims to be the legitimate government of a unified Korea, resulting in border skirmishes exacerbated by communist agitation in the south. On June 25, 1950, the Korean People's Army (KPA), trained and equipped by the Soviets, invaded the south, prompting the UN Security Council to condemn the aggression and call for member states to assist in repelling the invasion, with UN forces comprising 21 nations and the United States contributing approximately 90% of the military personnel.

Seoul fell to enemy forces on June 28, and by early August, the Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) and its allies faced near defeat, confined to the Pusan Perimeter in the southeastern region of the peninsula. On September 15, United Nations forces executed a landing at Inchon, strategically severing the supply lines of the Korean People's Army (KPA). Following a breakout from the perimeter on September 18, UN forces reclaimed Seoul and initiated an invasion of North Korea in October, successfully capturing Pyongyang and advancing toward the Yalu River, which marks the border with China. The situation escalated on October 19 when the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) crossed the Yalu River, joining the conflict in support of North Korea. By December, UN forces were compelled to retreat from North Korea due to the PVA's aggressive offensives, and Seoul changed hands again in January 1951 before being retaken by UN forces two months later.

Delegates sign the Korean Armistice Agreement in P'anmunjŏm.

The Korean War concluded on July 27, 1953, with the signing of the Korean Armistice Agreement, which facilitated the exchange of prisoners and established a 4-kilometer-wide Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) along the front lines, including a Joint Security Area at Panmunjom. The conflict resulted in over 1 million military fatalities and an estimated 2 to 3 million civilian casualties. Allegations of war crimes emerged, including mass executions of suspected communists by the South and the torture and starvation of prisoners of war by the North. North Korea became one of the most bombed nations in history, with extensive destruction of its major cities. The absence of a formal peace treaty has rendered the war a protracted and unresolved conflict.

Syngman Rhee

Syngman Rhee (이승만; 李承晚), born on March 26, 1875, and passing on July 19, 1965, was a prominent South Korean politician who held the position of the inaugural president of South Korea from 1948 until 1960. He is also recognized by his pen name, Unam (우남; 雩南). Rhee's political career included serving as the first and last president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea from 1919 until his impeachment in 1925, and again from 1947 to 1948. His presidency was marked by authoritarian governance, limited economic progress, and increasing political unrest and public dissent in the late 1950s.

Official portrait, 1948

Rhee was born in Hwanghae Province during the Joseon Dynasty and received his education at an American Methodist institution, where he converted to Christianity. He emerged as a Korean independence activist, facing imprisonment for his efforts in 1899. After his release in 1904, he relocated to the United States, earning degrees from various American universities and meeting President Theodore Roosevelt. Following a brief return to Korea from 1910 to 1912, he settled in Hawaii in 1913. In response to the Japanese crackdown on the March First Movement in 1919, Rhee became involved with the Korean Provisional Government in exile in Shanghai, serving as its first president until his impeachment in 1925. He later returned to the United States, where he campaigned for Korean independence, eventually moving to Washington, DC, in 1939. In 1945, he was brought back to US-occupied Korea by American forces, and on July 20, 1948, he was elected as the first president of the Republic of Korea by the National Assembly, marking the beginning of the First Republic of Korea.

During his presidency, Rhee maintained a staunch anti-communist and pro-American stance, which had defined his political career prior to taking office. His administration swiftly suppressed a communist uprising on Jeju Island and was responsible for the Mungyeong and Bodo League massacres, resulting in the deaths of over 100,000 individuals accused of communist sympathies. Rhee's tenure coincided with the onset of the Korean War (1950–1953), initiated by North Korea's invasion of South Korea. He notably declined to sign the armistice that concluded the conflict, advocating instead for the forceful reunification of the Korean Peninsula.

Following the war, South Korea's economy struggled in comparison to North Korea's and remained heavily dependent on American financial support. After winning re-election in 1956, Rhee sought to amend the constitution to eliminate the two-term limit, facing significant public opposition. He was re-elected uncontested in March 1960 after his rival, Chough Pyung-ok (조평옥), succumbed to cancer before the election. The subsequent victory of Rhee's ally, Lee Ki-poong (이기풍), in the vice-presidential race was met with allegations of electoral fraud, igniting widespread protests that culminated in the student-led April Revolution, during which police violence against demonstrators in Masan occurred. This unrest ultimately compelled Rhee to resign on April 26, leading to the establishment of the Second Republic of Korea. Despite his resignation, protests persisted, prompting a covert evacuation by the CIA on April 28, after which Rhee lived in exile in Honolulu, Hawaii, until his death from a stroke in 1965.

April Revolution

The April Revolution (4.19 혁명), also known as the April 19 Revolution or April 19 Movement, comprised widespread protests in South Korea against President Syngman Rhee and his First Republic from April 11 to 26, 1960, culminating in Rhee's resignation. The unrest began in Masan, a southeastern port city, initiated by student and labor organizations on April 11, following the revelation of a local high school student's death at the hands of police during prior demonstrations against fraudulent elections in March. Growing public dissatisfaction stemmed from Rhee's authoritarian governance, pervasive corruption, violent repression of dissent, and uneven economic development. The situation escalated into significant student protests in Seoul, which were met with brutal suppression, resulting in 186 fatalities over the two-week period. Rhee ultimately resigned on April 26 and sought refuge in the United States, paving the way for Yun Posun's (윤보선) leadership and the onset of the Second Republic of South Korea.

Background

Syngman Rhee served as the inaugural President of South Korea following the 1948 presidential election, guiding the nation through the transition from the United States Army Military Government to the establishment of the First Republic of Korea and leading during the Korean War. His administration, bolstered by American support during the Cold War, adopted a staunchly anti-communist and pro-American posture, utilizing the spectre of communism to justify severe repression of perceived dissent. Initially, this approach was tolerated due to concerns over political unity and potential reprisals; however, discontent grew after the Korean War's conclusion in 1953, as Rhee's government struggled to deliver meaningful economic and social progress, further alienating the populace by amending the constitution to extend his presidency. Consequently, Rhee became widely regarded as a corrupt and authoritarian figure, employing autocratic tactics and cronyism to sustain his regime.

Protesters during the April Revolution

In December 1958, Rhee maneuvered an amendment to the National Security Law through the National Assembly, which granted the government extensive new powers to restrict press freedoms and disenfranchise opposition members.

In 1959, Rhee experienced significant alarm and perceived threats when the United States slashed its economic assistance to South Korea, decreasing from $382,893,000 in 1957 to $222,204,000. This reduction prompted Rhee to adopt increasingly desperate strategies to maintain his political position.

The presidential election in March 1960 featured two primary opponents to Rhee: the minor Progressive Party, led by Cho Bong-am (조봉암), who had garnered one million votes in the 1956 election, and the Democratic Party, represented by Cho Pyong-ok (조평옥). In July 1959, Rhee accused Cho Bong-am of communist affiliations, leading to the latter's imprisonment and subsequent execution. Meanwhile, Cho Pyong-ok travelled to the United States for medical treatment but tragically died of a heart attack, raising public suspicions regarding the timing of these events.

Rhee was intent on securing the election of his ally, Lee Ki-poong, as Vice President, a position contested in a separate election on the same day. Lee faced off against Chang Myon, the Democratic Party candidate and former ambassador to the United States during the Korean War. On March 15, despite being largely incapacitated, Lee achieved an implausibly large victory, receiving 8,225,000 votes compared to Myon's 1,850,000. This outcome led to widespread allegations of electoral fraud, as reports indicated that Democratic rallies were banned nationwide and numerous pre-marked ballots were illegally inserted into ballot boxes on election day.

Masan protests and the death of Kim Ju-Yul

On March 15, coinciding with the announcement of election results, Democratic Party members in Masan organized a protest against alleged electoral corruption. Approximately one thousand residents gathered outside the party's local headquarters around 7:30 PM, where they faced a significant police presence amid a blackout of city lights. Tensions escalated as police began firing on the demonstrators, who retaliated by throwing rocks.

On April 11, a fisherman in Masan's harbour found the body of Kim Ju-yul (김주율), a student who had gone missing during the March 15 protests. Although authorities attributed his death to drowning, many disputed this claim after protesters entered the hospital where his body was held. They discovered that Kim had suffered a fatal injury from a tear-gas grenade, indicating that police had fired at a dangerously low angle. The regime's attempts to suppress news of this incident failed, as it was widely reported in the Korean press and gained international attention through AP. This event catalyzed a national movement against electoral corruption, leading to three days of intense protests in Masan and further violent confrontations with law enforcement. Rhee's administration attempted to divert blame by alleging communist involvement in the unrest.

March 15 50th Anniversary

Seoul protests

On April 18, protests erupted in Seoul, initiated by students from Korea University who organized a peaceful demonstration at the National Assembly to denounce police brutality and advocate for new elections. As they returned to their campus, they faced violent attacks from gangs allegedly financed by supporters of President Rhee.

The following day, known as "Bloody Tuesday," more than 100,000 students from high schools and universities marched towards the Blue House, demanding Rhee's resignation. In response, police opened fire on the crowd, resulting in approximately 180 fatalities and thousands of injuries. To quell the unrest, the Rhee administration declared martial law.

By April 25, the protests had escalated significantly, with professors joining students and citizens, creating a movement that outnumbered both soldiers and police, who chose not to engage with the demonstrators. On April 26, 1960, Rhee resigned, with Lee Ki-poong being held accountable for widespread governmental corruption. The subsequent day saw the resignations of the Minister of Interior and the Chief of Security, who took responsibility for the violent Masan incident. Tragically, on April 28, Lee Ki-poong's son committed a murder-suicide involving his family in Rhee's mansion.

Aftermath

The resignation of Rhee and the subsequent death of Lee Ki-poong marked the conclusion of the Liberal Party's governance. Rhee was exiled to Hawaii on May 29, 1960, with the expectation of a brief absence; however, he was unable to return due to widespread public dissent. This transition led to the establishment of the Second Republic of South Korea, which implemented a parliamentary system designed to diminish presidential authority. Yun Bo-seon was elected president on August 13, 1960, but actual power resided with the prime minister, Chang Myon.

First post-revolution trial began July 5th in South Korea for thirty former high officials of the Rhee regime on charges of corruption, maladministration, and election rigging, etc.

An investigative committee of the National Assembly determined that the police's gunfire aimed at the crowd was intended to kill rather than disperse the protesters. During a subsequent criminal trial, it was disclosed that Park Jong-pyo, the Chief of Public Security, had weighted Kim Ju-yul's corpse with rocks and disposed of it in the Masan area to prevent it from surfacing. Park received a life sentence for his role in Kim's death, one of many individuals sentenced by a revolutionary tribunal for various offenses, including several who faced capital punishment. Among those executed were officials who had authorized the police action, including Secretary of the Interior Choi In-Kyu (최인규) and Kwak Yong-ju, the presidential security chief, both of whom were hanged on December 21, 1961.

On May 16, 1961, amid ongoing political turmoil, General Park Chung Hee (박정희) executed a coup d'état that dismantled the brief Second Republic of South Korea, establishing a military junta that would evolve into the autocratic Third Republic. Rhee passed away in Honolulu on July 19, 1965, at the age of 90, at 19:35 Korean time.

Second Republic of Korea

The Second Republic of Korea (제2공화국), established from April 1960 to May 1961, marked a significant political transition in South Korea following the mass protests of the April Revolution against President Syngman Rhee. This government succeeded the First Republic and introduced a parliamentary system, with Yun Posun as President and Chang Myon as Prime Minister. It aimed to dismantle Rhee's authoritarian regime, promote liberal democracy, and initiate the first Five-Year Plans to revitalize the previously overlooked economy. However, after just thirteen months, the Second Republic was overthrown by a military coup on May 16, led by Park Chung Hee, which resulted in the establishment of a provisional military government under the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction, paving the way for the Third Republic of Korea. Notably, the Second Republic remains the sole instance of a parliamentary government in Korea's history.

Yun Po-sun

Yun Po-sun (윤보선; August 26, 1897 – July 18, 1990) was a prominent South Korean politician and activist who held the office of the second president of South Korea from 1960 to 1962. His presidency was characterized by its limited authority, as he primarily functioned as a symbolic leader within the framework of the parliamentary system established during the brief Second Republic of Korea.

Official portrait, 1960

Yun's political journey commenced in the aftermath of World War II, where he initially served as Secretary to the Chief of Staff in 1947, followed by his appointment as Mayor of Seoul in 1948. He took on the role of Commerce Minister in the newly independent Korea from 1949 to 1950. In 1955, he played a crucial role in founding the South Korean  Democratic Party. However, his presidency came to an abrupt end when he was ousted by Park Chung Hee following the May 16 coup in 1961.

Yun's political involvement began in 1945, shortly after Korea's liberation. He was mentored by Dr. Syngman Rhee, the first President of South Korea and a Princeton University alumnus. By 1947, Yun had ascended to the position of Secretary to the Chief of Staff, and in 1948, he was appointed Mayor of Seoul. His subsequent role as Minister of Commerce and Industry was marked by growing dissent against Rhee's authoritarian governance, leading to his election to the National Assembly in 1954 and his co-founding of the opposition South Korean Democratic Party the following year.

Chang Myon

Chang Myon (장면; 張勉; August 28, 1899 – June 4, 1966) was a prominent South Korean figure known for his roles as a statesman, educator, diplomat, journalist, and social activist, as well as a Roman Catholic youth leader. He served as the sole prime minister during the parliamentary Second Republic and was the fourth and final vice president of South Korea in the First Republic. His artistic name was Unseok (운석), and he was known in English as John Chang Myon.

Chang c. 1955

During the period of Japanese occupation, Chang contributed to education as a teacher, administrator, and principal. In 1948, he represented the Republic of Korea at the UN General Assembly and became the nation's first ambassador to the United States in 1949. He played a crucial role in advocating for U.S. and UN military support during the Korean War in 1950. Following the student-led April Revolution that ousted Syngman Rhee, he was elected Prime Minister of the Second Republic in 1960, leading the government until it was overthrown by Park Chung Hee's military coup on May 16, 1961.

May 16 Coup

The military coup d'état (5·16 군사정변) on May 16, 1961, in South Korea was orchestrated by Park Chung Hee and his associates, who established the Military Revolutionary Committee, nominally under the leadership of Army Chief of Staff Chang Do-yong, who consented to the coup on that day. This event effectively dismantled the democratically elected government led by Prime Minister Chang Myon and President Yun Posun marking the end of the Second Republic and the establishment of a military Supreme Council for National Reconstruction, with Park assuming the role of chairman following Chang's arrest in July.

1961. 5.16 Park Jung Hee

This coup played a crucial role in the emergence of a new developmentalist elite and set the stage for South Korea's rapid industrialization under Park's regime. However, its legacy remains contentious due to the significant curtailment of democracy and civil liberties that accompanied it, along with the subsequent purges. While Park and his supporters referred to the event as the "May 16 Military Revolution," framing it as a significant national awakening, the characterization of the coup as a "revolution" is debated, and its assessment continues to provoke differing opinions.

Background and causes

The context surrounding the coup can be examined through both its immediate circumstances and the broader evolution of South Korea following liberation. While the challenging economic and political environment of the Second Republic fostered conditions conducive to military intervention, the origins of the coup trace back to the latter years of Rhee's administration. Scholars such as Yong-Sup Han contend that the prevailing interpretation of the coup as merely a reaction to the instability of a nascent regime is overly simplistic.

South Korea under Syngman Rhee

Beginning in 1948, South Korea was under the leadership of President Syngman Rhee, an ardent anti-Communist who leveraged the Korean War to establish a dominant hold on political authority within the nation. Rhee's administration was characterized by the interests of a conservative elite, often referred to as "liberation aristocrats," who had gained prominence during the American occupation. This group constituted the majority of the political landscape, including both Rhee's allies and adversaries within the Democratic Party, which shared a vision of society that closely mirrored Rhee's own. To eliminate substantial opposition, Rhee orchestrated the execution of Cho Bong-am, a candidate who had garnered approximately 30% of the vote in the 1956 presidential elections with a platform advocating for peaceful reunification, a level of support deemed intolerable for an opposition figure.

“Combat-ready leathernecks of the Korean Marine Corps march to the capitol after the successful bloodless coup.” 1962-05-17.

Notably, even prominent opposition leaders like Cho were part of a broader conservative consensus among the ruling elite, which was grounded in a traditional Confucian perspective that dismissed concepts of ideological pluralism and equality in human relations as alien. This worldview emphasized the importance of paternalistic governance and extensive political patronage networks. Within this traditional framework, Rhee was regarded as the principal "elder" of Korean society, to whom citizens owed familial loyalty, a bond further reinforced by the obligations linking him to many members of the ruling class.

The governance of the "liberation aristocrats" resulted in a stagnation of development in South Korea, contrasting sharply with the advancements seen in neighbouring Japan. Although South Korea had experienced significant development during the Japanese colonial period, the presidency of Rhee was characterized by a lack of substantial economic initiatives, leaving the nation impoverished and predominantly agrarian. This stagnation spurred a rising nationalistic intellectual movement that advocated for a comprehensive societal overhaul and a complete political and economic transformation. At this juncture, Park Chung Hee, a relatively low-ranking army officer with uncertain political affiliations, became notably influenced by the emerging intellectual discourse advocating for change.

Social and economic problems of the Second Republic

Following the manipulated elections of March 1960, escalating protests culminated in the April Revolution, which led to Rhee's forced resignation on April 26 under pressure from the United States. With Rhee's departure, a new constitution was enacted, establishing the Second Republic, and the legislative elections held on June 29 resulted in a significant victory for the Democratic Party, while Rhee's Liberal Party was reduced to only two seats in the newly formed lower house of the  National Assembly. The Second Republic implemented a parliamentary system, designating a ceremonial president as the head of state, while actual executive authority was concentrated in the prime minister and the cabinet. In August, Democrat Yun Posun was elected president, with former vice-president Chang Myon appointed as prime minister.

Chun Doo-hwan (전두환), demonstration in support of the May 16 military coup

The Second Republic faced significant challenges from its inception, characterized by intense factionalism within the ruling Democratic Party and persistent public discontent. The South Korean economy suffered from rampant inflation and soaring unemployment, with crime rates more than doubling during this period. For instance, between December 1960 and April 1961, rice prices surged by 60%, while unemployment rates remained above 23%, leading to widespread food shortages. Chang, representing the Democratic Party's "New Faction," ascended to the position of prime minister by a mere three-vote margin. However, his purges of Rhee's appointees were perceived as ineffective, as he manipulated the suspect list to favour affluent businessmen and influential generals. Despite the removal of Rhee and the establishment of a democratic constitution, the entrenched "liberation aristocrats" continued to wield power, exacerbating the already dire situation in South Korea.

The disintegration of South Korean political structures, coupled with the administrative purges affecting the military, severely undermined the morale of the Military Security Command, which was responsible for maintaining military discipline and addressing insubordination. This hesitance to take decisive action created an environment conducive to the planning and execution of a coup. The myriad issues plaguing the Second Republic provided a fertile ground for such a coup to be organized and ultimately realized.

Factionalism in the military

A significant contributor to the coup's emergence was the internal factionalism within the South Korean army, which was among the largest globally, comprising 600,000 personnel at that time. The military's identity was shaped by a blend of Japanese and later American training, which merged the Japanese militarist ethos with American technical efficiency. This transformation expanded the military's role from merely defending against communist threats to actively participating in the nation-building process. Reform-minded junior officers perceived the senior leadership as tainted by political affiliations, a situation exacerbated by a stagnation in promotions due to the consolidation of senior command positions following the Korean War's rapid expansion.

Additionally, the military was fragmented along regional lines and among factions of officers from the same educational backgrounds. The most prominent divisions arose between those who graduated from the Japanese Military Academy and the Manchurian officers' school in Xinjing, while lower-ranking officers were further divided based on their graduation classes from the post-liberation  Korean Military Academy. Park, having attended all three institutions, was strategically positioned to spearhead the coup coalition, leveraging his extensive connections with both senior military leaders and younger factions.

Maj. Gen. Park Chung-hee (left) stands with his lieutenants in front of Seoul City Hall after seizing power in a coup on May 16, 1961. (Korea Herald file photo).

Following the fall of the Rhee administration and the establishment of the Second Republic, reformist factions, primarily composed of KMA graduates, began advocating for accountability among senior military leaders implicated in the manipulation of the 1956 and 1960 presidential elections. Major General Park, positioned relatively high within the military hierarchy, publicly aligned himself with the reformists, calling for the resignation of Army Chief of Staff Song Yo-chan on May 2. Subsequently, on September 24, a group of 16 colonels, spearheaded by Kim Jong-pil, demanded the resignation of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of Staff Choi Yong-hui, an event referred to as the "revolt against seniors" (하극상 사건; 下剋上事件). At this juncture, plans for a coup were already in motion, further expedited by the aforementioned revolt.

Course of events

On the morning of May 16, a plot was once again exposed, prompting swift measures from the authorities. The Counter-Intelligence Command issued a warning regarding a potential mutiny, leading to the deployment of military police to apprehend those suspected of involvement. Park relocated to the Sixth District Army Headquarters, now known as Mullae Park, to oversee the coup operations personally and to attempt to salvage the initiative. In a rallying speech to the gathered soldiers, he articulated the dire state of the nation, criticizing the civilian government for its corruption and urging the military to rise against it in a bid to restore order without resorting to violence.

The impact of Park's address was profound, resulting in even the military police, initially sent to suppress the uprising, defecting to his side. With control of the Sixth District Army secured, Park appointed Colonel Kim Jae-chun to lead the initial phase of the occupation of Seoul. He also communicated with Chang Do-yong, compelling him to align with the coup or face repercussions for his ties to the civilian administration. Subsequently, Park proceeded to the Special Warfare Command, where he directed operations to cross the Han River and seize the presidential residence at the Blue House.

An artillery brigade established control over the central Army Headquarters and secured the northern downtown areas of Seoul, situated north of the Han River. By 4:15 AM, following a brief confrontation with loyalist military police stationed at the Han bridge, Park's forces successfully occupied the administrative buildings of all three government branches. They then proceeded to seize the headquarters of the Korean Broadcasting System (KBS), where they announced the formation of the Military Revolutionary Committee and their assumption of power.

General Lee Han-lim, the only commanding officer to declare public opposition to the coup.

The proclamation articulated the military's rationale for the coup, stating that the authorities could no longer avoid conflict and had initiated a coordinated operation to take control of the government. The military justified their actions by asserting that the nation's future could not be entrusted to a corrupt and ineffective regime, and emphasized the necessity for the armed forces to guide the country, which they believed had strayed dangerously off course.

The broadcast further delineated the coup's policy goals, which included a staunch anti-communist stance, the strengthening of relations with the United States, the eradication of political corruption, the establishment of a self-sufficient national economy, the pursuit of Korean reunification, and the removal of the current political leadership. Although the proclamation was issued in the name of Chang Do-yong, identified as the committee's chairman, it was done without his prior consent. As dawn approached, a marine corps unit led by Kim Yun-geun crossed the Han River and took control of the Blue House as per orders.

The civilian government swiftly collapsed following the coup. Prime Minister Chang Myon fled Seoul upon learning of the takeover, while President Yun Posun resigned himself to the situation, continuing as a nominal leader until 1963, albeit devoid of real authority. Commander Lee Han-lim of the First Army had initially planned to mobilize reserves to counter the coup but ultimately retreated to avert a potential North Korean incursion, leading to his arrest two days later. With twenty heavily armed divisions backing the coup in Seoul, any hope of suppression was effectively extinguished. After three days in hiding, Chang Myon emerged to announce the resignation of his entire cabinet, transferring power to the new junta. Army cadets paraded through the streets in support of the coup, and Chang Do-yong accepted his role as chairman of the committee, thereby legitimizing its authority. The May 16 coup was thus fully realized.

Aftermath

The process of establishing a new government commenced promptly following the completion of the coup, with martial law being enacted immediately. On May 20, the Military Revolutionary Committee was rebranded as the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction (SCNR), and a new cabinet was formed the next day. Chang Do-yong, who served as the committee's chairman, retained his position as Army Chief of Staff while also assuming the roles of Prime Minister and Defence Minister, thereby becoming the formal leader of the administration. The SCNR was structured as a junta comprising the 30 highest-ranking military officials, organized into 14 subcommittees, and was endowed with extensive powers, including the authority to enact laws, appoint cabinet members, and oversee the overall administration.

The leaders of the Military Revolutionary Committee pictured on 20 May, four days after the coup: chairman Chang Do-yong (left) and vice-chairman Park Chung Hee (right).

However, the formation of the new cabinet was marred by a fierce internal power struggle, which Park swiftly navigated to consolidate authority. On June 6, the SCNR enacted the Law Regarding Extraordinary Measures for National Reconstruction, which effectively removed Chang from his roles as Defense Minister and Army Chief of Staff. This legislation was largely crafted by Yi Seok-che, who was acting under Park's directive to "eliminate" Chang. Subsequently, on June 10, the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction Law was passed, designating the deputy chairman of the SCNR as the head of its standing committee, thereby augmenting Park's powers. Ultimately, on July 3, Chang was arrested on charges of conspiring to instigate a counter-coup, and the June 10 law was revised to enable Park to take on the dual role of chairman of both the SCNR and its Standing Committee.

Legacy and evaluation

The coup on May 16 marked the beginning of a succession of military governments that persisted in various forms until 1993. It set a precedent for subsequent coups, including those on December 12 and May 17, orchestrated by Chun Doo-hwan, who succeeded Park. The emergence of a unified opposition during Park's regime, culminating in the Gwangju Democratization Movement post-1980, led to significant debate regarding the coup. Critics, including figures like Kim Dae Jung, condemned it as an unjustified act of violence that dismantled South Korea's first authentic democratic government, while others highlighted its positive outcomes, such as the rapid industrialization noted in a 1994 Freedom House report.

In the official narrative prior to 1993, the coup was termed the "May 16 Revolution" (5·16 혁명; 五一六革命) However, under the reformist leadership of Kim Young-sam, who had previously been an opposition figure, it was reclassified as a coup or military insurrection (군사 정변; 軍事政變). Park characterized the "May Revolution" as an essential act of self-defence for the Korean populace, and the military regimes' historiography framed it as a manifestation of national will. Kim Young-sam's reinterpretation challenged this perspective, simultaneously acknowledging the April 1960 protests as the "April Revolution."

This reinterpretation gained traction between 1994 and 1995 through educational reforms and the publication of history textbooks that adopted the new terminology. The shift in labelling reflects a broader societal reassessment of the events surrounding the coup and its implications for South Korea's political landscape. The evolving narrative underscores the complexities of historical memory and the ongoing struggle over the interpretation of pivotal moments in the nation's history.

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The second part of this episode will be available soon. Due to unexpected challenges in saving the complete episode, it has been split into two segments. In the upcoming part 2, I will discuss the Third Republic of Korea, accompanied by videos at the conclusion that address the events covered. I also urge readers to pursue additional independent research to deepen their comprehension of this facet of Korean history.

[cosmosbeelover]

The Lost 30 Years - Seol Woon-do / Jin Bo-ra / Na Hoon-a, etc. (잃어버린 30년 - 설운도 / 진보라 / 나훈아 등) - Episode 11/35 (Pt. 1)

Front cover of the Lost 30 Years album

The album in question, titled 'The Lost 30 Years,' features performances by various artists, including Seol Woon-do, Jin Bo-ra, and Na Hoon-a. It serves as a commemorative compilation associated with the special live broadcast "Finding Separated Families," which aimed to address the poignant issue of families separated by historical circumstances. Released on July 15, 1983, by Oasis Records, this album is cataloged as OL-A-2523. The significance of this album lies not only in its musical contributions but also in its role in raising awareness about the emotional impact of family separation.

The Lost 30 Years Album Back Cover

Included Songs:

The album features a diverse collection of songs across two sides. On Side A, notable tracks include "The Lost 30 Years," performed by Seolwundo with lyrics by Park Geon-ho and composition by Namgugin (남국인). Other significant contributions include "How have you lived" by Jin Bo-ra, "The unfilial son cries" by Na Hoon-a (나훈 아), and "Stay strong, Geumsoon" by Hyeonin (현인), among others, showcasing a range of lyrical themes and musical styles.

Side B continues this exploration with songs such as "We met" and "Good night, comrade," both performed by the KBS Choir, highlighting the collaborative nature of the album. Additional tracks like "Moonlight at Panmunjom" by Godaewon (고대원) and "Busan Station of Farewell" by Nam In-su further enrich the listening experience, while "I miss Mt. Geumgang" and "Thinking of my brother" reflect poignant sentiments. The album concludes with an instrumental piece titled "Oh my gosh, donggi donggi," composed by Healthy Song (건전가요; Geonjeongayo), adding a unique touch to the overall compilation.

There are a few additional songs in this playlist, I've been searching for this playlist for so long so I hope this is the right album. I also put up the Vibe playlist.

Finding Dispersed Families (1983)

This album lacks extensive information compared to the previous ones I have discussed, as it primarily features songs that were performed during the KBS 1TV Special Live Broadcast aimed at reuniting dispersed families in 1983, thirty years after the Korean War concluded in 1953. I will explore the significance of this album and the context in which these songs were presented.

The KBS 1TV Special Live Broadcast, which aired in the early 1980s, holds great historical importance in South Korea, as it addressed the profound separations and impacts experienced by Koreans due to the Korean War, and I will delve into the details of this significant event.

This post regarding the album will be extensive due to the significant amount of important information related to both the album and the event.

Overview

A program broadcast on KBS1 from June 30 to November 14, 1983, lasted for 138 days, totaling 453 hours and 45 minutes. It is recognized as the longest continuous live broadcast globally for a single program. The initiative involved nearly 1,000 individuals, including KBS staff such as announcers, producers, and technical personnel, as well as college students who assisted by answering calls. During this period, approximately 50,000 separated families visited Yeouido, leading to the reception of 100,952 cases, of which 53,536 were aired, resulting in 10,189 family reunions.

The siblings Kwak Man-young and Kwak Tam-sil, who were separated while taking an evacuation train at Yeongdeungpo Station in 1950 , are reunited after 33 years. The older sister, Kwak Tam-sil, was delighted to hear that her parents were still alive and shouted “Manse!” Original article with the photo (Reporter Lee Jung-hyun , Dong -A Ilbo) Filmed. Appears in the video).

The reunion success rate stood at 19.03%, marking a significant improvement over previous efforts to reunite separated families through print and radio media. While discussions about separated families often evoke the division between North and South Korea, this program aimed to facilitate reunions among families within South Korea and those abroad, thus encompassing a broader definition of separation. Notably, the first official reunions between families from the North and South occurred in 1985, two years after this program's conclusion.

Background

During the mid-to-late 20th century, a significant number of individuals in South Korea lived in a state of uncertainty regarding the fate of their families, with police estimates suggesting that around 10.5 million people belonged to 'separated families.' Given that South Korea's population was approximately 40 million in the early 1980s, this statistic indicates that one in four individuals was affected by family separation.

The majority of these separated families comprised compatriots who had either been conscripted by the Japanese or had emigrated for work, returning home after liberation or becoming estranged during the Korean War's turmoil. The forced migration resulting from the war's devastation led to various forms of separation, whether through chaotic evacuations, air raids, or fleeing from combat. The indiscriminate nature of air raids during this period meant that refugees were often caught in the crossfire, exacerbating their plight.

The cultural differences between South Koreans and UN forces, coupled with the limited foreign language proficiency among Koreans, hindered effective communication and identification of civilians versus combatants. During the Cold War, the lack of robust mass media infrastructure, such as newspapers, television, and telephones, further complicated the ability to share information. Although some communication technologies existed, they were often inaccessible to the general population, making reunification nearly impossible for those who had been separated.

In the mid-1980s, KBS identified the typical male demographic in South Korea using census data, depicting a household head as a man in his 40s, residing with his wife and two children, and lacking a telephone. Despite the national promotion of events like the Asian Games and the Olympics, the penetration of telephones in households was significantly low. It was not until the late 1990s that telephone access became widespread, leading to the gradual disappearance of public payphones. During this period, black-and-white televisions were prevalent in urban areas, while color televisions, introduced in 1980, remained costly and not widely adopted. Radios, being more affordable, had a broader distribution, but their limited broadcasting channels restricted their utility in reconnecting separated families.

Access to newspapers was relatively straightforward; however, Statistics Korea reported a 7% illiteracy rate among the Korean population in 1970. The elderly demographic was substantial, yet the economically active population exhibited virtually no illiteracy. Subsequent surveys on literacy became increasingly ineffective, with the last conducted in 1970. The challenges of placing advertisements in newspapers for ordinary citizens often resulted in missed opportunities for individuals seeking to reconnect, compounded by issues of misremembered details, such as names.

At that time, the government imposed restrictions on the number of pages each newspaper could publish to conserve resources, limiting them to three sheets or twelve pages. Consequently, even with advertisements, locating specific notices proved difficult without diligent searching. In response, the Hankook Ilbo dedicated an entire page in July 1970 to a special feature aimed at reuniting separated families, yet they could only list around 50 individuals, resulting in minimal social impact.

Numerous instances emerged post-war where individuals became estranged due to financial hardships, leading to a loss of communication. This phenomenon predominantly affected those employed as domestic workers or in urban factories. There were even occasions when individuals returned home during holidays, only to discover that their families had relocated, resulting in permanent separations. The absence of the Housing Lease Protection Act exacerbated these issues, as many faced eviction for unpaid rent or fled in the night with their security deposits, making such disconnections quite prevalent.

During this period, the societal norm surrounding family separation was pronounced. When a daughter or sister married, it often resulted in a severance of ties with her parents, or she might be adopted by relatives or others to alleviate familial burdens, sometimes even ending up in orphanages. The aftermath of war, coupled with poverty and child abuse, frequently left individuals without a stable home, complicating their ability to reconnect with loved ones. Broadcasts from that era revealed numerous cases where individuals were unaware of their own names or those of their families, highlighting the profound impact of these circumstances.

In the early 1980s, Korea experienced a significant lack of internet connectivity, which hindered communication among separated families. The introduction of PC communication by Dacom in 1985 marked the beginning of digital communication, but it was not until after 2000 that the internet became widely accessible to the general public. This accessibility was facilitated by the National PC Project and the proliferation of high-speed internet services like ADSL. At that time, the telephone network was also underdeveloped, with limited coverage that made communication challenging.

Prior to the airing of the program "Search for Separated Families" in 1983, individuals sought to reconnect with lost relatives through newspapers, which were the most effective medium available. They placed advertisements in the help wanted sections or participated in "People Search" initiatives organized by major newspapers. However, the limited number of pages in these publications and the absence of photographs diminished their effectiveness. The most widely circulated newspapers, such as Dong-A Ilbo and Hankook Ilbo, had only eight pages initially, which later expanded to twelve and then sixteen pages. Government control over newspaper content and pagination further restricted the dissemination of information, a practice that persisted in North Korea's Rodong Sinmun even into the 21st century.

The assertion that government resident registration data could facilitate locating individuals through administrative agencies or law enforcement was, at the time, unfounded. The family registration system was instituted in 1909, followed by the introduction of the resident registration system in 1942, coinciding with Japan's general mobilization during the war. This period saw the consolidation of resident registration data for colonial Koreans. However, following liberation, a significant influx of overseas compatriots returning to Korea led to a rapid increase in the unregistered population, exacerbated by a prolonged administrative vacuum that hindered data updates.

The outbreak of the Korean War further complicated matters, as numerous government offices were destroyed, resulting in the complete loss of many administrative documents, including family registers. Additionally, South Vietnamese refugees lacked any family registration, necessitating the creation of new records. Consequently, after the establishment of the government and the initiation of formal administration, many records were either lost during the war or reconstructed from memory and inquiries, rendering them fundamentally different from those established during the Japanese colonial era. The government, preoccupied with post-war recovery, lacked the resources to prioritize the search for separated families, making it challenging to utilize government offices for this purpose.

In 1968, the government initiated the assignment of resident registration numbers to all citizens, with the first resident registration cards being issued in 1970. To mitigate confusion, existing data remained uncomputerized and was stored separately in local offices, necessitating physical searches across the country for any individual. The full computerization of resident registration data was not achieved until the 2000s, raising questions about the efficacy of military service evasion methods, such as the theft of registration documents or their misplacement within files. This period was marked by significant North Korean provocations, which necessitated stringent administrative oversight of military service.

The lack of credibility in registration processes in Korea can be attributed to historical issues with the creation of registration documents through inefficient administrative practices. Although efforts were made to computerize the system, this merely involved digitizing existing records without verifying the authenticity of the original documents. Consequently, the integrity of the registration system remains questionable, reflecting broader challenges in administrative governance.

In the early 1980s, the police in Korea initiated the computerization of various resident registration records, facilitating rapid searches. By 1982, the National Police Agency launched a service aimed at locating separated family members by name. However, the limited diversity in Korean surnames resulted in numerous individuals sharing the same name, complicating the search process. While the use of Chinese characters could help differentiate individuals, the existing computer systems lacked the capability to process these characters. Consequently, identifying individuals based solely on names proved challenging, necessitating additional identifying information such as facial features.

The advent of color broadcasting in 1980, coupled with the proliferation of color televisions and multiple relay stations, significantly enhanced visibility across South Korea, achieving a 90% coverage rate. In contrast, the newly merged 2TV network had only recently commenced national broadcasting, resulting in a lower viewership of around 70%. The program for reuniting separated families was conceptualized in 1983, indicating a swift response to the urgent need for such services. This urgency underscores the profound emotional distress experienced by individuals separated from their families during this period.

Program Planning

In 1983, marking the 30th anniversary of the armistice, KBS organized a series of programs focused on the Korean War during a special week commencing June 25. Prior to the airing of Finding Separated Families, a five-part series titled '5-part Planning Series Although 6.25' was broadcast from June 20 to 24, followed by '6.25 Real Record-1000 Days of Record' on the 25th. KBS aimed to leverage the power of television as a public medium to locate separated families residing in South Korea. Prior to this initiative, KBS had been active in Sakhalin and China, regions lacking diplomatic relations during the Cold War. At that time, the Republic of China was acknowledged as the legitimate government of the Chinese mainland, while the People's Republic of China was often referred to derogatorily as the Communist Party of China (中共). Efforts had been underway to facilitate radio broadcasts for separated families in Bukgando and other areas, with this initiative serving as a means to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the June 25th Armistice in Korea.

A radio program titled "I Still Haven't Found My Family" was aired during the week of June 25th, garnering an enthusiastic response from listeners. This prompted the development of a television counterpart, initially named 'Studio 830,' which later transformed into 'Family Journal' during the spring reorganization of 1987, and subsequently became 'Morning Yard' in the spring of 1991. A special segment focused on reuniting separated families featured nine families, yet none achieved a reunion. In response to this outcome, the producer Choi Jong-geon proposed that the separated family search be designated as a special broadcast, leading to its scheduling for June 30th. Originally conceived as a two-part special commemorating the 33rd anniversary of the Korean War and the 30th anniversary of the armistice, the program was intended to last approximately 90 minutes, concluding with the evening news around 0:30.

June 30, 1983: Live broadcast begins

At 10:15, following the 9 o'clock news and regular programming, the live broadcast commenced with a signal from the control room. The format of the initial broadcast involved inviting approximately 150 families who had been separated and had previously applied to gather in a public hall, where Dr. Yoo Cheol-jong and announcer Lee Ji-yeon would present detailed accounts of each individual's story. Additionally, regional stations were linked to share narratives of separated families from various provinces, and if there were matching stories, a phone call facilitated a two-way relay between the stations. The Red Cross, which had been actively engaged in efforts to reunite separated families, reported that over 3,000 families had been reunited through its initiatives over the past three decades. Furthermore, KBS Radio 1 once highlighted the electronic calculation center of the National Police Agency, although the primary aim of the broadcast remained focused on reuniting separated families.

"Initially, I had concerns regarding the effectiveness of the separated family reunion program. I questioned whether I would even have the opportunity to meet a single individual. However, everything changed dramatically when the 120-minute program premiered in an expanded format on at 10:15 p.m. on June 30. The reception area in the KBS central hall quickly became inundated with reunion applications, and by 11 p.m., it was nearly at capacity. An emergency meeting was convened due to the broadcast, originally scheduled to conclude at 12:15 p.m., being extended until 2:30 a.m., with plans to continue the following day. Within the first four hours alone, more than 2,000 applicants arrived." This account is provided by Ahn Gook-jung, who served as the head of KBS Planning and Production Division 1 during that period. The overwhelming response highlighted the program's significance and the public's eagerness to reconnect with loved ones, showcasing the profound impact such initiatives can have on individuals and families.

The audience exhibited a remarkable level of enthusiasm during the event. Alongside the 150 attendees present on the main stage, over 800 individuals had already registered prior to the event, resulting in a packed audience comprised of separated families. To facilitate the introductions, three to four sub-hosts, including announcer Son Seok-gi, were engaged. Within ten minutes of the live broadcast, the ten confirmation phones installed in the studio began to ring incessantly. Notably, the phone numbers were displayed on screen approximately seven minutes and twenty-one seconds into the broadcast, and the first call was received just twenty seconds after their introduction, leading to a steady influx of calls. The call takers were visibly occupied, and in addition to the announced lines, KBS's General Affairs Department and all relevant telephone lines were activated, marking an unprecedented scenario since the installation of the DDD.

Families separated by circumstance flocked to the KBS studio in Yeouido, arriving without prior appointments until late into the night. MC Yoo Cheol-jong urged viewers to come to KBS, emphasizing that the curfew had been lifted in most areas of the country on January 5, 1982, just before the program commenced. His repeated encouragement, "You can come out anytime," further fueled the urgency among separated families, who arrived at KBS with a faint hope of being featured on the show. In an era characterized by limited communication, the media's influence served as a vital lifeline for these families, providing a sense of connection and possibility.

KBS initially scheduled a broadcast lasting approximately one hour and thirty minutes, with plans to adapt the live segment to potentially extend it to one o'clock. The live broadcast, originally set for around 2:29 AM the following day, was unexpectedly prolonged to share personal stories, culminating in the 24-hour news headquarters' comprehensive midnight news, which incorporated elements of KBS Newsline and KBS Closing News before concluding that day's transmission. Over the course of five hours, 29 families were reunited, beginning with the first reunion of a sister, and the broadcast concluded with a poignant moment showcasing another family's reunion, highlighting a total of twenty-eight families.

The broadcast on that day was limited in its ability to showcase only a fraction of the pre-registration members. Hosts, including Yoo Cheol-jong, concluded the program with an apology, indicating that the broadcasting station would allocate time the following week to introduce the remaining members. For an additional three minutes, the screen displayed placards held by separated families, highlighting the uncertainty of future broadcasts. Consequently, KBS headquarters decided to implement continuous live coverage the next day. All cast members and unintroduced separated families moved from the audience to the stage, displaying their placards for the camera.

The special live broadcast aimed at reuniting separated families unfolded over five consecutive days and nights, achieving an impressive viewership rating of 78%. This remarkable success for KBS, particularly KBS1, is noteworthy, especially considering the prevailing attitude of complacency following the 1980 media merger, which led to a belief that second place was acceptable given the limited competition. A gathering of approximately 500 individuals was convened during this period.

July 1 - July 10, 1983: Emergency broadcast relay

Day 1:

On the early morning of July 1, 1983, prior to dawn, over 10,000 families who had been separated gathered in a lengthy queue outside the KBS main building. These individuals included those who had missed the previous day's broadcast and others who hurried to the station in hopes of participating. Their purpose was to register with the broadcasting station in Yeouido, leading to a crowded open hall filled with people. Due to the overwhelming demand from separated families, which disrupted regular operations, KBS's programming chief decided to cancel the scheduled programming for the following Friday night and extend the live broadcast for an additional day. Although the number of lines was increased from ten to fifteen, this was still insufficient to accommodate the crowd. The same relay team, consisting of Yoo Cheol-jong, Lee Ji-yeon, Son Seok-gi, Hwang In-woo, and Yoo Ae-ri, who had worked tirelessly the previous night, continued their broadcast efforts. Additionally, announcer Won Jong-bae, known for hosting the Sarangbang relay from 1983 to 1993, was assigned to assist in the central hall alongside Yoo Ae-ri.

On the first day, the initial studio in the public hall became overly congested, prompting the use of the central hall within the KBS main building, which remains an awkwardly designed space. The NHK Yoyogi Center was initially conceived and constructed by a skilled team of technicians who intended to create six studios in a revolver configuration, allowing for simultaneous movement of a large three-dimensional tool. However, during a staff field trip to Europe, higher management intervened, altering the design, resulting in a space that is neither a lobby nor a hall, characterized by its uncomfortable dimensions and featuring a few cafes and an open radio studio. With the establishment of KBS Hall, a more suitable performance venue located behind the new building, the central hall has lost its relevance. Seating arrangements were made, and two-way broadcasting commenced in Yeouido, leading to reports of many viewers staying up all night to watch the show, subsequently arriving late to work the following day.

Day 2:

Anticipating the show's potential success, KBS enlisted all of its prominent announcers. After MC Yoo Cheol-jong and announcer Lee Ji-yeon endured two consecutive nights of broadcasting until Saturday morning, they were unable to continue, leading to the introduction of alternate hosts Kim Dong-gun and Shin Eun-kyung after 40 minutes of news and other segments. Saturdays featured an all-day programming schedule, contrasting with the weekday broadcasts that typically ran from 5:30 AM to 10 AM and from 5:30 PM until midnight, with a three-hour break in between. During this interlude, viewers encountered only static or color bars on their screens. The all-day format was reserved for Sundays, public holidays, and special live events, such as disaster coverage or significant ceremonies, which were broadcast without interruption. KBS had previously suspended regular programming, aside from a brief noon news segment, to air live coverage of separated families. Unlike the current five-day workweek, Saturdays were considered 'half-days' with morning work and classes, and the Nolto culture would not emerge until 2005. Consequently, viewer ratings surged dramatically that day.

This event represented a significant breakthrough for program planners. An examination of the broadcast records from that period reveals that the television show format, which relied on cue sheets, quickly became irrelevant from the outset, resembling a continuous stream of broadcasting mishaps. Viewers fixated on their screens, hoping to catch a glimpse of their missing relatives, while even those without personal stakes found themselves reacting emotionally, applauding and weeping at unexpected moments, creating a poignant real-time narrative. The deep-seated human drama, marked by 33 years of unresolved feelings, rendered any cue sheet unnecessary. In fact, the broadcast on that day was the most disordered of the entire series, with the production team's shouts and various background noises contributing to an atmosphere of chaos.

The weekends of July 2nd and 3rd attracted significantly more viewers than weekdays, leading to throngs of people gathering outside KBS buildings nationwide. Many camped overnight in front of the broadcasting station, foregoing food and sleep, while hosts and production staff remained on-site, subsisting on kimbap to sustain the broadcast. Over these two days, excluding a one-hour break for news updates, the program aired continuously for nearly 21 hours, from 10 PM to 7:30 PM the following day. Consequently, as exhausted separated families lingered at the broadcasting station, a resident from Seodaesin-dong in Busan undertook a 12-kilometer run in the middle of the night to the KBS Busan Broadcasting Station in Choryang-dong, bringing with him 500 bottles of Bacchus to share.

Day 3:

The public document from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs reveals that the Chun Doo-hwan administration aimed to exploit the existing situation, resulting in a notable change in the tone of broadcasts from that day forward. In contrast to the initial presentation, both the opening and closing remarks began to apply considerable pressure on North Korea, particularly highlighted in the concluding statements. Additionally, from this point onward, two or three military personnel were introduced as part of the cast, likely in response to a collaboration request sent to military units through the Ministry of National Defense. Among those featured were two non-commissioned officers, including a sergeant major from a turbulent area in Jeollanam-do and another from the front lines. Despite the emotional significance of reuniting with their families, they consistently expressed their gratitude towards "His Excellency President Chun Doo-hwan," as well as the regimental and division commanders, while saluting them. The siblings, who were shown cheering and embracing each other, also made an appearance that afternoon.

Day 4:

At 9 AM on July 4th, the broadcast commenced, coinciding with the 11th anniversary of the July 4th North-South Joint Statement. This initial segment featured a poignant commentary and showcased the emotional reunions of families separated for years. The opening sequence was underscored by Kwak Soon-ok's song "Who doesn't know this person?", which set a heartfelt tone, later transitioning to Seol Woon-do's "Lost 30 Years" following the regular broadcast.

The atmosphere during the broadcast was chaotic, as recalled by MC Yoo Cheol-jong. However, as the event progressed, coordination improved between KBS headquarters and regional stations, leading to a more streamlined operation. The previous day's broadcast had achieved a remarkable 78% viewership rating, capturing the attention of high-ranking officials and the nation. Over the next few days, announcers and production staff from regional stations adapted to the demands of the broadcast, working diligently to connect families, while the production director in Seoul maintained strict control over the proceedings.

Day 5:

Day 5 of the broadcast featured segments from the 8000s (Seoul) that had not been previously showcased. The hosts paused during the closing remarks to connect with a regional station, allowing for the introduction of another family. From this point onward, Seol Woon-do's "Lost 30 Years" was incorporated as an insert song. Notably, the hosts began reading their opening and closing comments while holding manuscript papers, indicating a scripted format. The commentary highlighted that the 4th or 5th day of the broadcast coincided with the 11th anniversary of the July 4th South-North Joint Statement, providing a timely opportunity for the host to critique North Korea. This led to several instances where enthusiastic cast members, during live broadcasts, expressed their frustrations with remarks such as, “Kim Il-sung, you XXX, do you know the pain of our nation?” and “Why do we have to suffer like this because of those bad communists?” These outbursts reflected the deep-seated anger and sorrow of separated families.

The significant demand from separated families led to the rebroadcasting of recorded tapes on VHS at the KBS Yeouido headquarters and in the lobbies of regional broadcasting stations. During this period, there were no regional public hearing channels or Internet VOD options available. The live VHS rebroadcasts were restricted to specific daytime and late-night slots due to the broadcasting station's internal crowd control limitations. Consequently, KBS 2TV temporarily suspended its regular programming to accommodate these rebroadcasts, which were marked with a fixed subtitle indicating the recorded content. While there was a public hearing relay broadcast, it was relatively uncommon. Additionally, KBS Radio 1 (HLKA) provided a separate broadcast for separated families, facilitating reunions for over 70 families.

Day 6:

Day 6 featured Seol Woon-do's song "Lost 30 Years" as both the title and insert song, accompanied by narrations from the 1980s that now evoke a sense of cringe. This broadcast significantly intensified black propaganda efforts aimed at punishing North Korea, reflecting the bleak realities of the military dictatorship. Prominent officials, including Yoo Chang-soon, the President of the Korean Red Cross, and Son Jae-sik, the Minister of Unification, made appearances. Yoo Chang-soon, a displaced individual from Anju in South Pyongan Province, received enthusiastic applause from the audience, highlighting the public's interest in the movement to reunite separated families.

From that point forward, KBS 1TV and 1 Radio initiated simultaneous live broadcasts. "It can be received in China and the Soviet Union via shortwave radio." However, in Korea, access was largely restricted to HAM operators, journalists, or National Intelligence Service agents until 1995, with KBS1R continuing shortwave broadcasts until 2007. The remark, "I like it," was made in jest. Although announcers claimed the broadcast reached North Korea, it is improbable that it was actually received, given the occasional derogatory remarks about Kim Il-sung and accounts of abductions by the People's Army, alongside North Korea's ongoing jamming of all broadcasts directed towards it. Following the conclusion of the sixth day of broadcasting, an additional segment aired from 10 AM to 9 PM on Radio 1.

Day 7:

Following the seventh day, the regime's propaganda heavily emphasized the narrative of family reunions, particularly among blood relatives separated during the Korean War. This was achieved by interspersing scenes from war documentaries with live broadcasts, accompanied by melancholic background music. In instances where families had been divided due to post-war hardships or simple domestic disputes, the approach was notably impersonal, focusing solely on verifying identities and collecting contact information. As the broadcast continued, rather than evoking tears, moments of frustration emerged among guests questioning why they had not sought each other out, alongside instances of unintended humor that elicited laughter from the audience, showcasing a complex human experience.

Moreover, the government enacted a resolution to elevate the search for separated families into a nationwide initiative akin to the Saemaul Movement. Consequently, individuals who had previously submitted applications to KBS were required to reapply. Applications were accepted at various civil service offices, police stations, and KBS headquarters in Yeouido, with new submissions compiled into a book and displayed at public offices and the KBS meeting plaza. As the Yeouido Plaza became increasingly congested, a designated 'Meeting Plaza' was established at the site of the current KDB Industrial Bank, allowing staff and myself to observe the developments firsthand.

Day 8:

Beginning last night, MCs Yoo Cheol-jong and Lee Ji-yeon led the morning broadcast, followed by Kim Dong-gun and Shin Eun-kyung hosting the afternoon segment the next day starting at 9 AM. The absence of programming on Sunday afternoons is attributed to the National Singing Contest, a dominant entertainment show that commands high viewership ratings, often interrupting live broadcasts of family reunions. Notably, this occurred prior to Song Hae's tenure as the MC, which began in 1988. On this particular day, a satellite connection was established between Los Angeles and KBS headquarters in Seoul, facilitated by ABC Broadcasting Company in the United States. As detailed in the broadcasting technology section, KBS lacked the capability for three-way broadcasting prior to the advent of satellite technology. Consequently, the families were able to reunite via satellite, culminating in a poignant moment where a daughter in Korea expressed her longing to touch her mother’s face in the U.S., a scene that begins at 48 minutes and 16 seconds into the broadcast. This emotional reunion was later referenced in the film Ode to My Father.

At the conclusion of the broadcast, political reporter Yoon Deok-su makes another appearance following President Chun Doo-hwan's unannounced visit to KBS that afternoon. Contemporary news reports indicate that Chun frequently conducted surprise visits to military installations, government offices, and local administrations, a strategy commonly employed by heads of state to enhance visibility and public engagement. This approach effectively captured national attention. Subsequently, the primary MC system featuring Yoo Chul-jong and Lee Ji-yeon was established, along with alternate MCs Kim Dong-gun and Shin Eun-kyung.

July 15, 1983 - November 14: Live broadcast with regular programming

KBS transitioned the live broadcast of its program focused on reuniting separated families into a regular series, primarily airing on Friday nights and offering continuous broadcasts throughout the weekends. The network also maintained regular programming via radio and other platforms. In terms of television, there appeared to be no designated time slots for these broadcasts; rather, they were scheduled whenever time allowed. Typically, these programs were aired during off-peak hours, specifically between the conclusion of morning shows and the commencement of evening broadcasts, as well as from approximately 10 PM until early the following morning. Special live broadcasts were organized for four days surrounding Liberation Day on August 15 and prior to Chuseok. All broadcasts were recorded and made available for viewing at the KBS public hall, with Dr. Yoo Cheol-jong actively promoting the initiative. Consequently, this relay broadcast achieved a remarkable total of 453 hours and 45 minutes of continuous live coverage by November 14 of that year, a record recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records that remains unbroken to this day.

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This post has grown quite lengthy and is likely to expand further if I continue, therefore, the content related to this album will be divided into two or three parts due to the substantial information regarding the event for which this album was created.

[cosmosbeelover]

The History of Korean Male Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 3.5/?

This section explores the ongoing journey of Kim Saeng-ryeo, focusing on the orchestras he established and participated in throughout his career. In the first part, I discussed his life and professional achievements.

Kyungsung Welfare Chamber Orchestra

Gyeongseong, which can also be spelled as Kyungsung, refers to the same Welfare Chamber Orchestra.

The Kyungsung Welfare Chamber Orchestra (경성후생실내악단; 京城厚生室內樂團), originally established as the National Music Popularization Corps (국민총력조선연맹; 國民音樂普及挺身隊), aimed to disseminate quality music and its artistic values to the public. This pro-Japanese ensemble was created to support the welfare initiatives of the Government-General of Korea (朝鮮總督府), performing in diverse settings such as educational institutions and various production areas, including agriculture, industry, and fishing, to provide uplifting music to the community.

Members of the Gyeongseong Chamber Orchestra in the 1930s.

This chamber orchestra, established in 1942, comprised musicians who had previously performed with the New Beijing Symphony Orchestra, which originated in Manchuria. At its inception, the orchestra was conducted by Kim Saeng-ryeo, with notable members including Kim Seong-tae, Kim Cheon-ae, Lee In-beom, Kim Tae-yeon (김태연), Lee Yu-seong (이유성), Lee In-hyeong, Park Pyeong-su (박평수), Lee Yong-cheol, Ahn Seong-gyo, and Lee Kang-ryeol (이강렬). Following its reorganization in 1944, Hyeon Je-myeong took on the role of chairman, while Kim Won-bok, Yun Ki-seon, Lee Heung-ryeol (이흥렬), Jeong Hee-seok (정희석), Lee Gyu-yong (이규영), Na Un-yeong (나운영), Jeong Yeong-jae (정영재), Kim Yeong-ae (김영애), and Lee Jong-tae (이종태) continued to contribute as active members.

He performed at the Music Patriotic Concert organized by the Joseon Music Association under the Japanese Government-General. In 1944, he travelled to Manchuria to help integrate the Welfare Chamber Orchestra into the New Symphony Orchestra. As a result, he was listed in the music section of the Dictionary of Pro-Japanese Figures compiled by the Institute for Research in Collaborationist Activities in 2008.

In February 1943, the orchestra, backed by the National Mobilization Association of Korea, organized a national music concert at Bumin Hall (부민관). During its inaugural year, the orchestra conducted a total of 152 performances over eight months, which included 36 general concerts, 46 school concerts, 19 consolation concerts for industrial soldiers, 44 consolation concerts for the military, and 7 additional concerts. In acknowledgment of its contributions, the Gyeongseong Welfare Chamber Orchestra was awarded the 5th Joseon Arts Award (朝鮮藝術賞) by Shin Taiyosha (新太陽社) in Japan in May 1945.

Lee In-beom, Kim Seong-tae, Kim Cheon-ae, and Lee In-hyeong appearing in the advertisement for the Gyeongseong Welfare Chamber Orchestra. 경성후생실내악단의 광고에 나오는 이인범·김성태·김천애·이인형

Activities

The Kyungsung Welfare Chamber Orchestra has a rich history of performances, beginning with its inaugural concert on June 11, 1942, followed by a second concert on December 24 of the same year. The orchestra continued to showcase its talent with a third concert and a Japanese National Music Concert on February 24, 1943, and a solo performance by Kim Cheon-ae in April 1943. Notable events included a patriotic chamber symphony night dedicated to a battleship on June 29-30, 1943, and participation in the Song of the Peninsula Liberation Day Concert on August 3, 1943. The ensemble also organized an open-air music and film night to commemorate the conscription system on the same day. In 1944, the orchestra toured mines and factories in North Hamgyong Province at the invitation of Cheongjin University, followed by concerts aimed at uplifting fishing villages and mining communities in Gangwon-do from August 12 to August 19. The Jeollabuk-do Industrial War Memorial Concert took place from August 22 to August 29, 1944, and the orchestra held its 11th concert from October 2 to 4, 1944. The year concluded with a Grand Concert from January 20 to 22, 1945, and a Hope Concert from March 23 to 25, 1945. The orchestra was honoured with the Joseon Art Award on May 8, 1945, and performed in China from May 5 to May 7, 1945, culminating in an evening of literature and music on August 1, 1945.

The National Music Popularization Corps/ Total Mobilization Federation

A pro-Japanese organization identified "When We Go to the Sea," "Battleship March," "The Power of Asia," and "National March Song" as key selections for the National Song Collection, promoting their performance across various regions. They established a singing guidance team known as the National Song Singing Movement Volunteer Corps, which was mandated to tour and perform these songs. The National Mobilization League, influenced by Western-oriented figures such as Hyun Je-myeong, Kim Seong-tae, Go Jong-ik (고종익), and Lee Heung-ryeol, played a significant role in advancing the Japanese name change policy implemented by the Government-General of Korea. This pro-Japanese entity was ultimately dissolved in July 1945, merging into the Korean National Volunteer Corps.

1977 Broadcast 50th Anniversary Commemorative Performance. In 1927, Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station was established and began radio broadcasting. This is generally considered to be the origin of broadcasting in Korea. This is a photo of the 50th anniversary commemorative performance in 1977.

Chosun Symphony Orchestra (조선교향악단; 朝鮮交響樂團)

The orchestra was established in 1940 through the reorganization of members from the Gyeongseong Orchestra and the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Orchestra. Directed by Park Gyeong-ho (박경호), it held its first concert in 1940 at Bumin Hall, featuring works such as Schubert's "Unfinished Symphony" and Beethoven's "Egmont Overture." Additionally, it premiered the dance drama "Heungbu and Nolbu," composed and conducted by Kim Seong-tae, which marked a significant development in dramatic music inspired by folklore. Shortly thereafter, the orchestra presented Kim Seong-tae's original work "Heungbu and Nolbu" under his direction, engaging in ambitious performances. However, the onset of the Pacific War ultimately led to the disbandment of the Joseon Symphony Orchestra.

People who led the Western music of Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station

In the photo is says Hong Jae-yu (Left) and Park Kyung-ho (Right). Below it says Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station (In Red) and Central Musicians Association 1927 (In Blue).

Kim Saeng-ryeo (김생려), along with Hong Nan-pa (홍난파) and Park Gyeong-ho (박경호), played a pivotal role in introducing Western music to Korea during the Japanese occupation and in the subsequent periods, including the Korean War. These three individuals endured one of the most challenging eras in Korean history, and despite facing censorship, destruction, and loss of their works, their legacy endures. Kim Saeng-ryeo was the last to continue his musical career until his death in 1995. Although their contributions are not widely recognized, many Koreans today continue to honour their achievements, particularly through performances of orchestral works created by them, highlighting the significant impact these artists had on the cultural landscape during a tumultuous time.

The inaugural broadcasting station in Korea commenced operations on February 16, 1927, following preliminary test broadcasts initiated in December 1924 by the Governor-General and the Chosun Ilbo. These early broadcasts included a test by Yangak, although detailed records of the Governor-General's broadcasts on the 9th and 10th remain scarce. Notably, Hong Nan-pa participated in the Chosun Ilbo's test broadcasts on the 17th and 18th, with documented evidence and photographs showcasing his violin performance.

The photo says ‘Special broadcast of the launch of the second broadcasting station with the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station Orchestra and Isu’.

The introduction of Western music to Korea can be traced back to the 1910s, particularly through the efforts of Hong Nan-pa, aligning with a broader cultural exchange during that era. This music, referred to as Gukak or Changga, distinguished itself from children's songs, pop songs, and folk songs, appealing not only to Koreans but also resonating with Japanese audiences, indicating a successful integration of Western musical influences. In 1919, the Gyeongseong Music Friends Association was established, marking the inception of an orchestra. By 1926, prior to the country's opening, the Central Music Association was formed, which performed a celebratory piece for the inauguration of the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station. During this period, Hong Nan-pa was studying in Japan, while key figures such as Park Kyung-ho and Mrs. Boots from Ewha Woman’s University (이화여자대학교; 梨花女子大學校) played significant roles. The Central Music Association was comprised of approximately 15 members, including notable musicians like Kim Hyeong-jun and Choi Ho-young, who contributed to its leadership. Mrs. Booth, a graduate of the Pittsburgh Conservatory of Music, was proficient in multiple instruments and significantly advanced the local music scene.

The trombone on the left was Park Geon-won (박건원), and the trombone on the right was Baek Byeong-gon (백병곤). The photo above is a performance scene taken when the group was first formed and broadcast.

The JODK orchestra made its debut on April 13, 1928, initiating a new era of music broadcasting. This ensemble, which began as an amateur group, was notable for being the first professional orchestra in the region to compensate its members. Among those involved were Park Kyung-ho and Hong Nan-pa, with around 18 musicians participating in performances two to three times monthly. In 1929, after returning from his studies in Japan, Hong Nan-pa witnessed a flourishing Western music environment. He dedicated himself to education at the Central Day-care Centre and revitalized the jazz band, which subsequently engaged in active broadcasting efforts.

The initial volume of Hong Nan-pa's extensive collection of 100 children's songs from the Joseon era was published, coinciding with a surge in music broadcasting activities at Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station. In 1931, Hong Nan-pa travelled to the United States for further studies, yet the foundation of his work remained intact, allowing him to return in 1933. During this period, a second Korean language broadcasting station was established, contributing to a more vibrant musical landscape.

From right to left of name shown in the photo -> Baek Myeong-gon (백명곤), Lee Jil (이질), Lee Byeong-sam (이병삼), Kim Won-tae (김원태), Hong Sae-yu, Hong Nan-pa, Choi Ho-young (최호영), Kim Seong-sun (김성선) and Park Won (박원). Below it says -> ‘1929 Summer JODK Broadcast – Jazz broadcast in Seoul for the first time’ - From Mr. Nayoung Yoon's home page.

A trio of violinists, including Hong Seong-yu (홍성유) and Lee Young-se (이영세), emerged during this era, alongside notable musicians such as violinist Jeon Su-rin and clarinetist Kim Kyo-seong. These artists, along with drummers and other instrumentalists, were not only prominent composers but also integral members of broadcast orchestras and jazz ensembles. The distinction between classical music, popular music, and children's songs was increasingly blurred, reflecting a unique cultural moment where the categorization of music was less significant than the enjoyment it provided.

It is often believed that Hong Nan-pa exclusively performed children's songs and classical music; however, he also released popular songs under various stage names. Actively involved in both broadcasting and academia, he played a significant role in the establishment of the JODK Orchestra at the Gyeongseong Central Broadcasting Station, which was formed on April 13, 1935. This orchestra marked the beginning of extensive musical activities, enhancing the breadth and depth of the station's musical offerings. Notably, in 1985, the Korean music history published by the Korea National University of Arts acknowledged Hong Nan-pa's contributions alongside those of Chae Dong-seon (채동선) and others, highlighting their performances of orchestral works by Im Dong-hyeok and the emergence of creative music in Korea. His composition "The Heart of a Traveler" was particularly significant, as it was made possible through the efforts of this orchestra.

From left to right - > Hong Seong-yu, Lee Young-se and Hong Nan-pa Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station’s 1st performance – August 1933

A photograph capturing contemporary musicians, including Hong Nan-pa, Hong Seong-yu, Kim Won-bok, Hong Jae-yu, Hong Eun-yu, and Park Gyeong-ho, showcases their collaboration with Hyun Jae-myeong and Dokgo Seon at the broadcasting station. Hong Seong-yu and Kim Won-bok, a couple united by their passion for the violin and piano, gained fame as a duo through numerous concerts and activities. After studying in the United States, they adopted their current name in 1929. Hong Nan-pa also served as the first chairman of the Joseon Music Association, established in 1930 while he was a professor at Yeonhui University, and he earned a doctorate in vocal music in 1937.

From top left to bottom right -> Dong Ko-seon (독고선), Hyeon Je-yeong (현제명), Park Kyung-ho (박경호), Hong Eun-yu (홍은유), Hong Jae-yu (홍재유), Kim Won-bok (김원복), Hong Seong-yu (홍성유) and Hong Nan-pa (홍난파). Musicians who attended the Yunim Budda Concert – Na Woon-young’s Hall (홍성유님 부처 연주회에 참석한 온악인 나운영 선생님 홈에서). There is also another translation of this –> ‘At the home of Na Woon-young, a musician who attended Hong Seong-yu's Buddha concert ‘

Although Hong Nan-pa passed away prematurely, his legacy continued to flourish after Korea's liberation. He was instrumental in the founding of the Seoul National University College of Music and remained an influential figure in the music industry until his death in 1970. His connections in broadcasting extended to notable figures such as Chae Seon-yeop, Lee Heung-ryeol, Park Tae-hyun, and Hong Jong-in, further solidifying his role as a pivotal figure in the development of Korean music.

Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station Orchestra and Wang Su-bok (경성방송국 관현악단과 왕수복)

The musical endeavours of Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station were significantly impacted by the outbreak of World War II, coinciding with the death of Hong Nan-pa. Following his passing, Kim Saeng-ryeo, who had been assisting Hong as a conductor, assumed leadership of the Broadcasting Orchestra and appointed Gye Kye-sik as a temporary conductor. However, the arrival of Japanese conductor Eiji Nakagawa led to complications in the conducting process, reflecting the broader turmoil of the war, which rendered the activities of Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station increasingly futile during this tumultuous period.

The legacy of Hong Nan-pa looms large, overshadowing many contemporaries whose contributions remain less recognized, yet numerous individuals forged connections with Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station. Notably, figures such as Park Kyung-ho and Kim Saeng-ryeo played pivotal roles in this narrative. Park Kyung-ho was particularly influential in the station's musical landscape, especially during Hong Nan-pa's absence abroad, and he was instrumental in significant events such as the station's inauguration in 1927 and the celebratory concert for the second broadcast in April 1933, highlighting his central role in the station's history.

From left to right -> No Jeong-pal (노정팔), Park Kyung-ho (박경호), Ahn Ik-tae (안익태), hwa Jae-gyeong (활재경), Choi Chang-bong (최창봉). Park Kyung-ho's VOA days - 1957 – (박경호님 VOA시절 -1957년-)

Following the liberation in 1946, KBS assumed its current programming responsibilities, with Kim Saeng-ryeo serving as the planning manager. In June 1949, he made history as the first individual in broadcasting to undertake a six-month training trip to the United States, subsequently working with the Voice of America during the 1950s. Born in 1912, Kim was a student at Yeonhui College in 1939 under the direction of conductor Hong Nan-pa. After Hong's death in 1941, Kim took over the leadership of the Broadcasting Symphony Orchestra at Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station and continued to oversee the KBS Orchestra until after the liberation.

From left to right -> Lee Gye-won (이계원) and Park Kyung-ho (박경호). Park Kyung-ho's VOA days - 1957 – (박경호님 VOA시절 -1957년-)

Kim Saeng-ryeo's Memoir (from the 1977 edition of Korean Broadcasting System)

In the spring of 1939, during the JODK period, he assumed the position of conductor for the broadcasting orchestra, which initially comprised around ten members. Hong Nan-pa, previously known for his accompaniment work, was appointed as the music director of JODK. Following his appointment, he initiated an expansion of the orchestra by acquiring instruments from Japan, which led to an increase in membership to twenty-five. This development culminated in the live broadcast of the Haydn Mozart Symphony, marking a significant milestone as it was also transmitted to Korea.

The formal establishment of the professional orchestra is recognized as occurring on May 16, 1940, under the direction of Hong Nan-pa. The orchestra's repertoire included notable works such as "Spanish Night" by Bizet, "Humoresque" by Dvorak, "Golden Wedding Anniversary" by Marie, "Little Toy Soldier" by Rosey, "Dancing Doll" by Poldini, and "Objects of the Desert" by Zamenik.

Kim Saeng-ryeo (김생려)

Shortly thereafter, Mr. Hong Nan-pa fell ill, prompting my engagement as a contractor in 1944. I assumed Mr. Nan-pa's responsibilities and transitioned into a permanent role. Following his passing, I was appointed as a temporary conductor and subsequently became a full-time member of the broadcasting station. Additionally, we expanded our team by recruiting approximately 20 new members and sought opportunities for external performances, culminating in a 40-member orchestra supported by a budget for 25 full-time positions, which proved advantageous for JODK.

At that time, Onoda, a Japanese individual leading the business department, had studied conducting in Vienna under Eiji Nakagawa and was invited to serve as the chief conductor around 1942. Although we held high hopes for his leadership, our initial rehearsal left us disheartened. Nevertheless, around 40 musicians rallied behind Mr. Gye Jeong-sik, who endeavored to facilitate international performances. However, Onoda's nationalistic tendencies hindered these efforts, as he was reluctant to engage in public appearances, possibly due to personal sentiments.

Negotiations with Onoda occurred multiple times, with around 20 unpaid members participating in broadcasts under Eiji Nakagawa's direction. Despite his willingness to continue, he insisted that external performances be managed by an accountant, a request that was consistently denied. This marked the initial attempt to cultivate the Korean orchestra movement, which was initiated by a Japanese individual named Han, yet it faced inevitable challenges due to prevailing prejudices.

Double Broadcast Commemorative Performance - Sogong-dong Gyeongseong Public Hall - (2중방송 기념 공연 - 소공동 경성공회당-)

Ultimately, with the exception of approximately ten exclusive members, all individuals departed from JODK, leading to his resignation and withdrawal from the organization. The former members who left attempted to unite and establish a new orchestra; however, their efforts were unsuccessful. Consequently, the JODK Orchestra reverted to a ten-member ensemble, transforming into an accompaniment orchestra before ceasing to exist after August 15th, maintaining its current form since 1949.

The Seoul Symphony Orchestra, which served as the precursor to the city orchestra, was situated at the Jeongdong Broadcasting Station during this period. Under the guidance of American advisor Rolf Jacobi, a genuine broadcasting initiative commenced, marking the beginning of the symphonic movement.

The War of National Foundation (Movie)

This section discusses President Syngman Rhee, featured in a 2024 Korean independent film directed by Kim Deok-young. The documentary explores the historical significance of Rhee, the first to third President of the Republic of Korea, highlighting his efforts to rescue classical musicians from abduction by founding the 'Naval Military Music Band.'

Following Korea's liberation from Japanese rule in 1945, the peninsula was divided by the United States and the Soviet Union at the 38th parallel, leading to divergent ideological paths for the North and South. North Korea, influenced by Soviet communism, evolved into a repressive dictatorship that violated human rights and stifled freedom. In contrast, South Korea embraced liberal democracy under American influence. This film examines how two nations, sharing a common language, history, and culture, became polarized into vastly different states, emphasizing Rhee's pivotal role in shaping the Republic of Korea over the past seven decades.

1st Trailer

2nd Trailer

Evaluation

The film occupies a unique space between a biographical portrayal and a documentary focused on a historical event, presenting a nuanced interplay of broader societal changes and individual experiences. It diverges from the typical binary of good versus evil often found in Korean political narratives. Given its exploration of political figures and events, it inevitably elicits varied interpretations influenced by viewers' political affiliations, irrespective of the film's artistic merit.

Syngman Rhee, a figure marked by both significant achievements and controversies, has sparked polarized assessments; some argue the film prompts a reassessment of his legacy, while others contend it distorts historical facts. Critics have labelled the film as one that undermines Rhee's contributions, alleging it misrepresents the spirit of the March 1st movement and unduly glorifies pro-Japanese elements associated with the New Right, despite Rhee's clear anti-Japanese stance.

The discourse surrounding the film reveals a spectrum of opinions, from those who find merit in its message to others who deem it overly simplistic and biased, resulting in a stark division in public reception, as evidenced by emotional responses from viewers.

Establishing the 'Naval Military Music Band'

The film 'The War of National Foundation' is said to have exceeded 820,000 viewers by the 22nd, merely three weeks after its February 1, 2024 release. While it is customary to pay tribute to the founding president, discussions regarding President Syngman Rhee among Koreans are just beginning to emerge. However, an important narrative remains untold in the film; few are aware that President Rhee played a significant role in the advancement of high-level classical music, which is now celebrated by Koreans as a 'K-classic'.

This is a photo taken by the Jeonghun Music Band, which was founded during the war, during its Jinhae tour in December 1950. All members are wearing navy uniforms as naval personnel, which is unusual. Courtesy of Jeong Seong-yeop, Executive Director of the Republic of Korea Military Song Commemoration Association.

The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 led to the fall of Seoul, forcing musicians to flee amidst the turmoil. In this chaotic environment, there was little support for these artists, compelling them to navigate their own paths. Conversely, Kim Il-sung recognized the strategic value of music for propaganda and invited Jeong Yul-seong, a member of the Chinese Communist Party, to North Korea, granting him the rank of Major in the North Korean Army. Jeong Yul-seong subsequently recruited and forcibly abducted musicians who remained in Seoul, resulting in the capture of many, including baritone Professor Kim Hyung-ro, who was married to Professor Kim Soon-ae, the composer of the Korea Military Academy's school song and known for "Because of You."

In response to these developments, conductor Kim Saeng-ryeo of the Seoul Symphony Orchestra and the era's leading soprano, Kim Cheon-ae, proposed the establishment of a military music corps to President Syngman Rhee. Despite resistance from various military branches due to operational priorities, Chief of Naval Operations Son Won-il, who understood the significance of music as his wife was an Ewha Womans University music graduate, successfully advocated for the initiative, leading to the formation of the 'Naval Military Music Corps' on October 1, 1950.

President Syngman Rhee meets with the Children's Press Corps in 1957. Courtesy of the Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs.

A total of 130 musicians, both male and female, resided in the 'Bupyeong Inn', a distinctive three-story building shaped like the letter 'ㅁ' in Bupyeong-dong, Busan. This group was responsible for operating a symphony orchestra, a choir, and a creative department. Notable figures among them included composers such as Kim Dong-jin, Kim Seong-tae, Na Woon-young, and Yoon Yong-ha, along with conductors Kim Saeng-ryeo and Lim Won-sik. The ensemble also featured prominent musicians like violinist Ahn Byeong-so, cellist Jeon Bong-cho, pianist Baek Nak-ho, and vocalists Kim Cheon-ae, Lee In-beom, Kim Hye-ran, Hwang Byeong-deok, Oh Hyeon-myeong, and Ahn Hyeong-il. Their performances provided comfort and morale-boosting support to both troops and civilians.

Many of the musicians rescued from potential abduction by North Korean forces under President Rhee Syng-man have become foundational figures in the classical music scene of Korea, contributing to its rich heritage. This location was also the birthplace of Korea's first mixed professional choir. In 1957, the 'Navy Symphony Orchestra' rebranded itself as the Seoul City Symphony Orchestra, continuing its tradition as a leading musical institution. Additionally, it launched 'Jeonghun Music', Korea's inaugural music magazine. Following the recapture of Seoul on November 11, 1950, the 'Jeonghun Music Band' commemorated the Navy's fifth anniversary with a series of six concerts over three days at the 'Sigongwan' in Myeongdong, aimed at uplifting the spirits of UN forces and local citizens affected by the war.

The upcoming year will mark the 80th anniversary of the Republic of Korea Navy, established on November 11, 1945. This milestone raises the question of whether there will be a celebratory performance to honour the Navy's role in founding the Seoul City Symphony Orchestra. The unprecedented policy of safeguarding musicians during wartime is a significant aspect of history, and it serves as a reminder of President Rhee Syng-man's contributions to the arts and culture during a tumultuous period.

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 3.5/?

This episode continues the narrative of Yun Sim-deok, focusing on the events following her death and the legacy of her music. It is important to note that this instalment is intended for a mature audience, as it will address sensitive themes related to self-exit.

"행복 찾는 인생들아 너 찾는 것 허무" (To those who seek happiness, your search is in vain) - Yun Sim-deok 'Hymn of Death'

Suspicion of death

During an album recording in Japan, Yun Sim-deok encountered Kim Woo-jin, who was preparing to study abroad in Germany. On August 3, 1926, the two unexpectedly boarded the Tokuju Maru, a ship bound for Busan. The following day, they vanished from the vessel, leading to significant media attention as it was reported as the first 'love affair' (情死) case in Joseon, although the true nature of their relationship remains uncertain.

Three key facts are established: first, both individuals boarded the same ship on August 3; second, on the morning of August 4, their cabin was found empty with only their belongings left behind; and third, a subsequent review of the passenger list revealed their absence. Despite media speculation about a possible suicide pact, no will or evidence was confirmed by family or friends, and no witnesses were present at the time of their disappearance. Consequently, the search for their bodies in the expansive ocean proved futile.

Upon the media's initial coverage of the incident, they reported that "the two individuals embraced and leaped into the sea after leaving a will," a narrative that has persisted over time. The families of Kim Woo-jin and Yun Sim-deok vehemently refuted claims of an "affair," likely motivated by concerns for their family’s reputation. They even contested the notion of suicide itself, further complicating the public's understanding of the events.

At that time, Kim Woo-jin had distanced himself from his family due to a conflict with his father and was in Japan, preparing for his long-desired studies in Germany. On August 1, he submitted his play, <Wild Boar>, to a magazine, expressing optimism about his future endeavours. Meanwhile, Yun Sim-deok was diligently working to fund her younger sister's education in the United States, with her sister's departure scheduled for August 5. After her sister arrived in the U.S., she learned of Yun's tragic death. Additionally, Yun had reached out to a friend in Tokyo, indicating plans to meet soon, raising the critical question of whether the two were indeed lovers, a topic that was only speculated upon in the media following the incident.

There is no concrete evidence to suggest that Kim Woo-jin (김우진) had romantic feelings for Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕); rather, any such inference is speculative and primarily drawn from his literary works. Jo Myeong-hee, a friend of Kim Woo-jin, dismissed the notion of their relationship as mere rumour, indicating it was not significant. Even if they had been lovers, the possibility of separation or remarriage exists, and there is no compelling reason to believe they engaged in an affair. The circumstances surrounding their departure to Joseon raise questions, particularly since they left no testament and informed no one of their journey. This has led to various theories regarding their fate, including the 'survival theory' suggesting they faked their deaths, the 'accident theory' involving a slip, and the 'murder theory.' Their dramatic demise fuelled speculation that they might have relocated abroad, especially concerning Kim Woo-jin's alleged affair, with claims that they staged their deaths to escape together. Additionally, there are claims that Yun Sim-deok may have conspired with her record label to fake her death to promote her album. Notably, no witnesses were present at the supposed suicide, and the bodies were never recovered. However, the passenger list did indicate residences matching those of Kim Woo-jin (김우진) and Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕), and both were 29 years old at the time, confirming their presence on the ship, albeit under the names Kim Su-san (김수산) and Yoon Su-seon (윤수선).

There were persistent rumours suggesting that the two individuals did not perish but instead escaped to Europe. Allegedly, they bribed the sailors aboard the ship to fabricate a suicide narrative, subsequently traveling to China and adopting Chinese identities to reach Europe. As the popularity of <Ode to Death> remained strong, these rumours proliferated. In 1931, speculation arose that an Asian couple operating a general store in Italy were, in fact, Kim Woo-jin and Yoon Sim-deok, with specific names and locations being cited. Kim Woo-jin's younger brother sought verification from the Japanese embassy in Italy through the Governor-General's Office, which reported that no such individuals were found in Rome but would continue their search. In 1934, a man claiming to be the grandson of Kim Ok-gyun asserted he had encountered Kim Woo-jin and Yoon Sim-deok, who were purportedly musical instrument dealers in Rome. However, this claim was later debunked as false. Ultimately, the notion that they faked their deaths lacks credibility, as it would have been more logical to use their real names rather than pseudonyms.

In examining the case of Kim Woo-jin, Professor Yang Seung-guk from Seoul National University deemed the likelihood of an affair to be minimal, attributing more credence to the theory of suicide, which he posited was likely impulsive and possibly induced by Yun Sim-deok. The prevailing narrative within recent literary analyses categorizes Kim Woo-jin's death as either a suicide or an accident, while music critic Kang Heon has introduced the notion of murder, implicating Nitto Records, the label that had acquired Yun Sim-deok's album. This company, a subsidiary of the Japanese state-run Nitjiku, was relatively obscure at its inception in 1926, especially compared to more prominent labels like Columbia and Polydor, and it ceased operations by 1928. Notably, the song "Sa-ui-hyeomi," (사의혜미) which became the album's lead track, was not initially intended for release by Yun Sim-deok; her brother, who accompanied her on piano during the recording, refuted claims that she had requested it, suggesting instead that it was an unexpected addition. This has led to speculation that the circumstances surrounding her death may have been orchestrated by the Japanese company to enhance sales of records and gramophones in the Joseon market.

This is a newspaper clipping about Yun Sim-deok published in 1973 February 14th. 演藝手帖半世紀(연예수첩반세기) 歌謠界(가요계) (8) 尹心愿(윤심덕)의 情死(정사) 「광막한황야 달리는人生(인생)」,愛人(애인)과 현해탄에죽은뒤 [死(사)의찬미 」流行(유행)----日業者(일업자) 크게致富(치부) 한국에 들어온 日本(일본)의 레코드資本(자본)을 크게 도와준것은 익살맞게도 尹 心悳(윤심덕)의 「死(사)의 찬미」 였다. 「玄海灘(현해탄) 激浪(격랑)중에 青春男女(청춘남녀) 情死(정사)」 「藝術(예술)에 共鳴(공명)되야 八年(팔년)전사랑의 싹」 一九二六年八月三日(일구이육연팔월삼일) 관부연락선 「德壽丸(덕수환)」에서 발생한 美人(미인)가수 尹心愿(윤심덕)과 극작가 金祐鎭(김우진)의 세기적 情死( 정사)사건을 당시 신문들은 이렇게 連日(연일) 대서특필했다. 尹心愿(윤심덕)과 金祐鎭(김우진)은 이날오전十一(십일)시 [시모노세끼」를 떠 나는 「德壽丸(덕수환)」에 올랐는데 이날 오후四(사)시 배가對馬島(대마도)근해 를 지날 무렵 현해탄에 몸을 날려 자살했던것이다. 土月會(토월회)의 멤버였고 同友會(동우회)의지방공연에서 갈채를 받았던미모 의 新女性(신여성) 尹心愿(윤심덕)의 난데없는 죽음은 사회에 큰충격을 주기에 충분했다. 一八八九年(일팔팔구년) 平壤(평양) 태생인 尹心惠(윤심덕)은 平壤女高普(평양여 고보)와 京城女高普師範科(경성���고보사범과)를 마친후 江原道(강원도)에서 잠 시 교편을 잡았다. 一九一七年(일구일칠년) 총독부의 官費(관비)유학생으로 東京 音樂學校(동경음악학교)를 마친후 모교인 京城女高普(경성여고보)(현재의京畿 女高(경기여고))에서 음악교사를했지만 곧 그만두고 聲樂(성악)연마와 레코 드취 입을 하는한편가끔 京城放送局(경성방송국)에 출연하기도했다. 그녀는 正統(정통)코스를 거친 순수음악인이었지만 니또레코드 京城支店長(경성지점장)을 겸하고 있던 朝鮮蓄音機商會(조선축음기상회)주인李 基世(이기세)의 끈질긴 설득으로 유행가를 취입하기에 이르렀다. 취입을 승낙한 尹心愿(윤심덕)은 七月十七日(칠월십칠일) [니또] 레코드本社(본사)가 있는 「 오사까」(大阪(대판))로 갔다. 이때의 레코 드는 앞뒤에 한곡씩 녹음하는 것이었는데 취입하는 김에 +(십)여곡 을 넣기로하고 관부연락선을 타기위해 七月十七日(칠월십칠일) 京城(경성)에서 釜山行(부산행) 기차를 탔다. 이날 京城驛(경성역)에는 李基世(이기세)와 李瑞求( 이서구)씨(작가·당시 [니또] 레코드문예부장)그리고 南相ㅡ(남상일)씨(현合同 通信理事(합동통신이사) 당시 東亞日報(동아일보)정치부기자)가 그녀를 전송하 러 나왔다. "모두 즐거운 분위기였죠. 취입 잘하고 돌아 올땐선물로 고급 넥타이나 사오라고 했더니 「죽어도 사와요?」 하고 말하고는 또 쾌활하게웃더군요. 그래 [죽으려거 든넥타이나 사서 부치고 죽어」 하고 농담을 했거든요. 그러고보니 그것이 마지 막이었읍니다. "(李瑞求(이서구)) 尹心愿(윤심덕)은 日本(일본)왕래가 많았기때문에 인솔자없이 혼자떠났다. 취입 을 마치고도 돌아오지않았지만 京城(경성)에서는 취입료를 두둑이 받았을테니푹 쉬고오나보다 모두들 생각하고 있었다. 七月末(칠월말)께 李基世(이기세)는 여섯장의 레코드 테스트판을 받았다. "이것이 尹心愿(윤심덕)의 취입판이었는데 예정보다 -(일)장이 더많더군요. 그 래 틀어봤더니 그것이 바로 「死(사)의 찬미」 였읍니다. 예정에도 없던 曲(곡)이 어서이상하다 했는데 노래가 상당히 서글프더군요. "그리고季瑞求(계서구)씨는 「死(사)의 찬미」의작사자가 미상이라는 일부 주장에 대해 尹心息(윤심덕)본인 의 작사가 틀립 없다고 토를 달았다. 그녀가 투신자살한 것은 테스트판이 도착된 며칠후였는데 八月十日(팔월십일)경 李瑞求(이서구)씨와 南相ㅡ(남상일)씨에게는 소포가 한개씩배달돼왔다. "그게 바로 尹(윤)이 보낸 넥타이였지요. 갖가지 감회가 가슴을 찔렀는데 차마 매 고 다닐수가 없어 장롱속에 넣어뒀어요. 피난통에 까맣게 잊었었는데 작년에 책 을 정리하다 책갈피속에서 이 넥타이를 찾아냈어요. "파란 실크넥타인데 李瑞求( 이서구)씨는 결국 四十七年(사십칠년) 동안을 보관하고 있었다는 이야기다. 「광막한 황야를 달리는 인생아….」로 시작되는 이노래는 「이바노비치] 작곡 의 「다뉴브江(강)」에 가사를 붙인것으로 「와세다」 출신 극작가와 소프라노 新 女性(신여성)간의 전설적인사랑과 함께 레코드는 불티나게 팔려나갔다. 그녀는 이전에도 日本(일본)축음기 회사에서 「어엽뿐 색시」 「매기의 추억」 「나와 너 」 「아 그것이사랑인가」 「망향가」 「방끗웃는 월계화」 등 가곡을 취입했었 지만 유행가는 이것이처음이었다. 제비표 [니또] 레코드에서 흐느끼듯 흘러나오는 「死(사)의 찬미」가 히트하자 이제까지 부유층의 재산목록에속하던 유성기와 소리판은 쉽게 대중속에 파고들 수 있게됐다. 「死(사)의 찬미」는 流行歌(유행가)의 보급뿐아니라 우리나라에 상륙한日本(일본)의 레코드 자본을 살찌게하는 결과를 가져온것이다. (李吉範(이길범)기자>

Yun Sim-deok and Kim Woo-jin's disappearance after August 4, 1926, remains a significant event. Notably, playwright Lee Seo-gu, a close friend of Yun, recounted a poignant farewell at Gyeongseong Station prior to her departure to Japan for an album recording. Their exchange included a light-hearted promise regarding a gift, where Yun asked what she should bring back for Lee, who requested a tie. Their banter took a darker turn when Yun jokingly inquired if Lee would still want the tie even in death, to which Lee affirmed he would. This conversation, while playful, took on a sombre tone following Yun's tragic passing, as the tie Lee had requested arrived shortly after the news of her death, remaining unworn until Lee's own demise.

Mediatization and Legacy

The romantic relationship between Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕) and Kim Woo-jin (김우진) has inspired numerous theatrical productions and films long after their passing.

The initial cinematic adaptation of the story was the film <Yun Sim-deok>, released in 1969 and directed by Ahn Hyun-chul. The principal characters, Kim Woo-jin and Yun Sim-deok, were portrayed by Shin Sung-il and Moon Hee, respectively, while supporting performances were delivered by Lee Soon-jae (이순재), Baek Yeong-min (백영민), Joo Jeung-nyeo (주증녀), and Han Eun-jin (한은진). This film notably features the pivotal encounter between Kim Woo-jin and Yun Sim-deok, culminating in the dramatic moment when they leap into the Korea Strait.

In 1991, the film "In Praise of Death," (사의 찬미; 死의 讚美) directed by Kim Ho-seon, depicted the poignant love story of Yoon Sim-deok, featuring performances by Jang Mi-hee as Yoon Sim-deok, Im Sung-min as Kim Woo-jin, and Lee Kyung-young as Hong Nan-pa, alongside Jo Min-ki and Kang Gye-sik. Jang Mi-hee received the Blue Dragon Film Award for Best Actress for her portrayal, while Im Sung-min was honored with the Best Actor award. Following this film, Kim Ho-seon directed "Annie Gang," which generated significant attention in the Korean film industry by reuniting Jang Mi-hee and Im Sung-min. Notably, "In Praise of Death" represents one of the final works produced by the traditional Chungmuro ​​film community from the 1950s.

Reporter Jeong-cheol Shin = Tongyeong City will perform 'Ode to Death', the third civic cultural center planned performance of the year, based on the love story of Joseon's first soprano 'Yun Sim-deok', called the greatest scandal of the 20th century, and genius playwright 'Kim Woo-jin', a pioneer of Korean theater. The photo is the performance poster. (Photo = provided by Tongyeong City). 2023.10.07.

The musical and theatrical adaptation debuted in 1988, presented by Yoon Dae-seong as a play titled Hymn of Death through an experimental theatre company. It was subsequently staged as a musical in 1990, and the 2005 rendition featured singer Bada in the role of Yoon Sim-deok, generating significant public interest. In 2012, the narrative was expanded to include a storyline about Yoon Sim-deok and Kim Woo-jin in a musical named Gloomy Day, which was later re-staged in 2015 under the original title Hymn of Death. In 2016, the play "The Ferry of the Kings" was introduced, portraying a scenario where only Kim Woo-jin (김우진) perishes while Yoon Sim-deok is saved by the protagonist, who is depicted as departing for Rome to pursue her true aspirations while concealing her survival, reflecting the aforementioned survival theory.

The drama ‘Hymn of Death’ was broadcast on SBS starting November 27, 2018, consisting of six one-act episodes. It was shown twice daily over a span of three days, resulting in a total of six segments rather than three. The episodes aired on November 27, December 3, and December 4. In this production, Shin Hye-sun portrayed Yoon Sim-deok, while Lee Jong-suk took on the role of Kim Woo-jin.

In the 2022 Apple TV+ series Pachinko, a character inspired by Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕) is featured. The protagonist, Seon-ja, boards the Tokuju Maru to reunite with her husband, Isaac, in Osaka. During this journey, a glamorous singer retrieves a shawl that Seon-ja has dropped, expressing her appreciation by mentioning a cherished gift from her lover and promising to perform for Seon-ja at her concert that evening. While Seon-ja, who is pregnant, endures the harsh realities of third-class travel, the singer indulges in luxury, only to face sexual harassment from a powerful Japanese man nearby.

When the singer takes the stage, she begins with the soprano aria "Let Me Cry," but unexpectedly shifts to a line from Chunhyangga, provoking outrage among the Japanese audience. The situation escalates as the enraged passengers summon the police, prompting the singer to take her own life with a concealed knife upon seeing the authority’s approach. Although this portrayal diverges from Yun Sim-deok's actual life, the character's essence and thematic elements appear to draw inspiration from her story.

Additionally, the character is depicted alongside Kim Woo-jin (김우진) in the series Joseon, the Age of Revolution. In this narrative, they are shown contemplating the artworks of Pierre-Auguste Renoir, which are part of Emperor Gwangmu Yi Seon’s collection. The series emphasizes their struggles with familial and societal expectations, framing them as artists rather than romantic partners. Their tragic fate is contextualized within the broader narrative of colonial youth suffering under Japan's oppressive regime, offering a poignant commentary on historical realities rather than adhering strictly to official accounts.

Posthumous Albums

In the Korean pop music scene, numerous artists experience cycles of prominence and obscurity. While some manage to sustain their relevance through memorable tracks, others fade into obscurity over time. Particularly poignant are the cases of artists who produced remarkable music yet died prematurely. Their enduring songs serve as a poignant reminder of their legacy, evoking nostalgia among listeners. Younger musicians often honour these late artists by performing their songs, and dedicated fans engage in memorial activities long after their passing.

The music left behind by these artists is preserved, ensuring their contributions endure. Yum Sim-deok stands out as a significant figure in the annals of Korean pop music, having created impactful hits before her untimely death at a young age. Notably, she is recognized as one of the earliest artists to have a posthumous release, with her final works emerging after both her and her lover's deaths.

Discovering the Hymn of Death Album

In 1926, she journeyed to Japan to record an album, driven by the intention to support her younger sister's education in the United States. Among the pieces she recorded was the famous "Hymn of Death," which featured newly written lyrics set to the melody of Iosif Ivanovich's waltz "Ripples on the Danube." Notably, "Hymn of Death" was not her original selection; reports indicate that she made the decision to include it spontaneously during the recording session. The song achieved significant commercial success, with sales reaching around 100,000 copies at the time of its release and in the years that followed, a phenomenon likely amplified by her premature passing. This evocative piece, which contemplates the theme of mortality, was recorded before she had the opportunity to experience its official launch. Furthermore, six months before this session, she had reimagined Schubert's "Wild Roses" and "Linden Trees" into "Laurel Flowers" and "Old Dreams," with these recordings being discovered in late April 2022.

In the realm of Korean popular music, the intense public fascination and reaction to a singer's premature death and subsequent works can be traced back to Yun Sim-deok's "Ode to Death." Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕), who pursued classical vocal training in Japan but ultimately performed popular music to sustain herself, and Kim Woo-jin, a member of a prominent family in Jeolla Province and a key figure in the new theatre movement, tragically took their lives together in 1926 by leaping into the sea from a vessel en route between Shimonoseki, Japan, and Busan. At the time, she was only 29 years old. Their relationship, characterized by the complexities of a new woman entangled with a married man during the Japanese colonial era, highlights the tragic limitations imposed by class and social structures. Nevertheless, the profound sense of emptiness expressed in her music has continued to resonate deeply with the Korean populace long after her death.

Iosif Ivanovich

Before discussing Yun Sim-deok's rendition of 'Hymn of Death,' it is important to briefly address the original composer of the piece, Iosif Ivanovich.

Born in Romania in 1845 and dying on September 28, 1902, at the age of 56 or 57, he was a prominent military bandmaster and composer known for his light music. Although originating from a Balkan country somewhat distant from Austria, the heart of the waltz tradition, he is recognized for a unique and exceptional composition.

His notable works include the waltz "Ripples of the Dunare" (Valurile Dunării) and the waltz "Carmen Sylva." Additionally, his great-grandson, Andrei Ivanovich, born in 1968, has gained international recognition as a pianist and remains active in the music industry, reflecting a familial connection to his great-grandfather's legacy.

The ripples of ‘Dunarea’

The Dunărea, known as the 'Danube' in English and 'Donau' in German, is often referred to by the German name 'Danube ripples' (Donauwellen). Despite Iosif Ivanovic's significant popularity during his lifetime, he has not garnered much recognition in the 21st century, with various dances and marches primarily performed and recorded in Romania. However, his waltz stands out, achieving fame comparable to that of the Strauss brothers, particularly Johann Strauss II. Its appeal lies in its melancholic melody, which reflects Slavic folk music and is distinct from typical Viennese waltzes. This waltz was also popularized in the United States as the 'Anniversary Song,' featuring lyrics that align with its melody. During the Japanese colonial period in Joseon, a song titled "Sa-ui Chanmi" emerged, inspired by the same concept, and gained immense popularity through the rendition by Yun Sim-deok, marking a significant moment in early Korean music. A biographical film sharing the same title was released in 1991. Additionally, a piano solo arrangement of the waltz is included in the "Piano Piece Collection," serving as supplementary material for piano learners, leading many to discover the piece for the first time. The song is also featured as an insert in the Dutch animated short film, Father and Daughter.

사의찬미/ 부활의깃붐 - 윤심덕 (Hymn of Death/Resurrection Flag Boom - Yun Sim-deok)

The album 'Praise/Hymn of Death' is one of the two that I have successfully located, and both will be discussed.

Released in 1926 by Ildong Gramophone Company, "Praise of Death" marks a significant moment in Korean popular music, sparking extensive social discourse. The song's prominence was largely influenced by the scandal involving Yun Sim-deok, which facilitated the broader recognition of phonograph records in Joseon. Accompanying the main track, "Joy of Resurrection" serves as a hymn featured on the reverse side of the album.

Lyrics

Life is ultimately finite, governed relentlessly by the passage of time. When confronted with the inexorable nature of time, one finds a capacity for forgiveness and understanding that transcends ordinary experiences. The concepts of transience and compassion are intertwined, akin to two facets of the same reality. The notion that chaotic desires may eventually subside and that the anguish of relationships is temporary can serve as a source of solace amidst life's challenges.

Engaging with the profoundly unsettling song 'Ode to Death' evokes complex emotions. The title itself is haunting, as it openly extols death, seemingly threatening to erase all vitality. The ethereal quality of Yun Sim-deok's voice resonates as if it belongs to another realm, embodying a profound sense of emptiness. Paradoxically, after experiencing this deeply cynical piece, life may appear more vibrant and hopeful, akin to the renewal that follows tears. Immersing oneself in such sorrowful melodies can strip away the trivialities of existence, revealing what is truly significant and reigniting the desire to live. Yun Sim-deok's portrayal of life as a "vast wilderness" and a "dangerous confession" remains relevant nearly a century later, prompting existential inquiries that echo the void of contemporary existence.

The second verse stands out for its literary purity, encapsulating the duality of existence through the lines, "The smiling flowers and the crying birds/ Their fates are all the same." This juxtaposition of joy and sorrow reflects the complexity of life, akin to dust that settles lightly yet profoundly. Echoing Charlie Chaplin's sentiment, life appears tragic up close but transforms into a comedy from a distance. The poignant lines, "You poor life/ Passionate about life/ You are a dancer/ On the sword," convey a sense of hopelessness intertwined with fervour. This metaphor of a 'dance on the sword' captures the reckless pursuit of desires, illustrating the human condition's inherent struggles and the fleeting moments of peace that follow.

In a tragic turn of events, just prior to the song's release, Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕) and her lover, Kim Woo-jin (김우진), who was already married, took their lives by jumping from a government ferry into the Korea Strait. known as the “Gyeonghaetan (玄海灘). This dramatic incident, where the song and their lives intersect, has an almost surreal quality, elevating the narrative to mythic proportions. The scandal surrounding their deaths contributed significantly to the song's success, prompting music critic Kang Heon to suggest a conspiracy theory regarding a potential 'suicide planned by the record company.' This song marked a pivotal moment in the evolution of Korean popular music, with its melody derived from Romanian composer Ivanovic's 'Danube River Ripples,' while the identity of the lyricist remains uncertain, speculated to be either Yun Sim-deok or Kim Woo-jin.

In February 1990, shortly before Voyager 1 exited the solar system, it captured an image of Earth with its camera directed away from the planet. The renowned scientist Carl Sagan reflected on this distant view of Earth, which appeared as a nearly imperceptible dot, stating that it was home to "heroes and cowards, creators and destroyers of civilizations, kings and peasants, couples in love, mothers and fathers, hopeful children, corrupt politicians, superstars, great leaders, saints and sinners," all residing on this minuscule fragment of the cosmos.

From a broader perspective, life can be perceived as a mere trivial occurrence, lacking even the elements of comedy. At this moment, that tiny speck of existence continues its journey through the vastness of space.

Acceptance of Cover Songs in Early Popular Song History

The first commercial album in Korea debuted in 1907, marking a significant moment before the emergence of popular song albums, during which early popular music primarily consisted of Japanese or Western adaptations. The song <Hymn of Death> serves as an example of this trend, being a cover that incorporates lyrics into a segment of Ivanovich's <Ripples of the Danube>. While it is believed that either Yun Sim-deok or Kim Woo-jin penned the lyrics, the absence of their names on the text complicates definitive attribution.

Praise of Death / Front cover of the Resurrection Flag Boom album, owned by Shinnara Records.

Composed around 1880, <Ripples on the Danube> has seen widespread release across various countries. In Japan, it was introduced as <Donaugawa no Sazanami>, featuring lyrics by Teiichi Tamura. However, the song's portrayal of picturesque river landscapes contrasts sharply with the sombre themes present in <Ode to Death>. It is important to note that Yun Sim-deok's <Hymn of Death> is also referred to as Praise and Ode, alluding to the same piece.

The love affair between Yun Sim-deok and Kim Woo-jin

This song gained notoriety due to Yun Sim-deok, who recorded "Hymn of Death" in Japan, tragically taking her life by jumping into the sea with her lover, playwright Kim Woo-jin, while returning to Korea. A soprano and graduate of the Tokyo Music School, Yun Sim-deok was emblematic of the active new woman of her time; however, it is widely believed that she and her partner succumbed to despair over their relationship, particularly given the complexities surrounding her love for a married man.

The relationship between Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕) and Kim Woo-jin (김우진) sparked numerous speculations and rumours, persisting until the 1930s. These included theories suggesting that her death was not a suicide but rather a murder, or even that she had survived and was living in Italy. Such narratives illustrate the significant social impact and public intrigue surrounding their affair.

An opportunity to prove the potential of the phonograph record market

Ildong Gramophone Company, established in Osaka, Japan in 1920, commenced the distribution of Korean records in September 1925, producing approximately 180 records from 1925 to 1928. Notably, the track “Praise of Death” is distinguished by its unique catalogue number 2249, setting it apart from other recordings by Yun Sim-deok.

Sa-ui-chan-mi / Resurrection's flag boom album back cover, owned by Shinnara Records.

The cataloguing adheres to the Japanese numbering system utilized by Ildong Gramophone Co., Ltd. The lyrics, which reference “a song of determination,” suggest that this system was employed during the expedited production of the album following Yun Sim-deok’s passing. The album label was inscribed in Japanese as “Shinosanbi (死の讚美).” This album gained significant popularity upon its release and was reissued multiple times, with one instance mistakenly listing the artist as Lee Sim-deok (伊心德) instead of Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕). The media coverage surrounding Yun Sim-deok's personal life further amplified the album's appeal, highlighting the burgeoning potential of the phonograph record market.

‘Praise of Death’ revived through film and song

The 1932 recording of "Praise of Death" by Kim Seon-cho is believed to bear similarities to Yun Sim-deok's original song, although the authenticity of the sound source remains unverified. Prior to Korea's liberation, it is challenging to locate any cover versions of "Praise of Death," likely due to the original's profound impact. Following liberation, notable artists such as Kim Jeong-ho, Lee Mi-ja, Na Yun-seon, and Han Yeong-ae performed renditions of the song.

The original, it's full of goosebumps.

The romantic narrative of Yun Sim-deok has also been adapted into film, with significant examples including "Yun Sim-deok," directed by Ahn Hyun-chul and featuring Shin Sung-il and Moon Hee, released in 1969, and "Hymn of Death," directed by Kim Ho-sun and starring Jang Mi-hee and Lim Sung-min, released in 1991. Notably, "Hymn of Death" achieved considerable commercial success, ranking third in the Korean box office in 1991. Additionally, Shinnara Records reissued the phonograph record of "Ode to Death" as part of a restoration series in 1990, with a rare copy fetching over 50 million won at a Yahoo Japan auction in 2015, marking it as the most expensive Korean pop album.

Faust Noel / Blue Galnilly - Yun Sim-deok (파우스트노엘 / 푸른갈닐리 – 윤심덕)

The album "Faustnoel/Blue Galilee" by Yun Sim-deok, published by Ildong Gramophone Co., Ltd. under the "Jevipyo Records" label, features the inaugural carol song in Korea. According to existing music documentation, the tracks on this album are unequivocally recognized as the earliest carol songs in the country, serving as significant evidence of the historical development of Korean carol music.

Korea's first Christmas song album

Ildong Gramophone Company launched two albums featuring Yun Sim-deok's carol songs in October 1926, titled "Faustnoel/Blue Galilee" and "Santa Cruz/Santa Lucia" (album number B-101). Notably, "Faustnoel/Galilee" represents the inaugural phonograph album of carol songs in Korea. According to the Maeil Shinbo on October 18, 1926, these tracks are recognized as the earliest recorded carol songs; however, during that period, the concept of carol songs was not established, leading to their classification as hymns. The first hymn album in Korea was released a year earlier, in October 1925, by vocalist Ahn Ki-young.

‘Faustnoel’ mistaken for a hymn

The authenticity of the phonograph record featuring the inaugural carol song remains unverified, leading to widespread speculation. While <Santa Cruz> was acknowledged as the first carol song based on its title, <Faustnoel>, which bore an earlier catalog number, was presumed to be a hymn, alongside <Blue Galilee> on the reverse side.

The revelation by Lee Kyung-ho, the album's owner, that 'Faust' represents a 1920s Japanese pronunciation of 'First' clarified that <Faust Noel> is indeed a well-known Christmas carol, even among non-Christians. This piece is a rendition of <First Noel>, celebrated for its narrative of the three wise men visiting the birthplace of Jesus. The Japanese recording of <Faustnoel> features Yun Sim-deok's younger brother, Yun Seong-deok, providing piano accompaniment, while Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕) delivers the Korean-translated lyrics with her distinguished vocal artistry. The album gained significant attention during its appraisal on KBS 1 TV's "Real Masterpiece" on December 27, 2015, where it was valued at 10 million won.

Faust Noel / Blue Galnilly Album Back

History of Early Korean Carol Songs

Korean carol songs have evolved alongside the introduction of Christianity, which began to take root at the close of the Joseon Dynasty. During the Japanese colonial era, these songs were primarily performed in churches, with the earliest recorded carol attributed to Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕) in 1926. Following her, Yohan continued the tradition by releasing a carol song album in December 1934.

In August 1935, composer Hyun Je-myeong contributed to the genre by releasing "Silent Night, Holy Night" through Columbia Records. This was followed in 1941 by a collaborative effort from classical musicians Hyun Je-myeong, Kim Hyeon-jun, Kim Ja-gyeong, and Kim Su-jeong, who recorded "First Christmas" and "Silent Night, Holy Night" as a mixed quartet for Victor Records, thereby establishing a foundation for the genre's wider acceptance.

The enjoyment of Christmas songs among the general populace surged after Korea's liberation, particularly with the influence of American pop singers like Bing Crosby, who were introduced by stationed U.S. soldiers. In the 1950s, notable songwriters such as Han Bok-nam, Jeon Oh-seung, and Ha Gi-song began to create original Christmas songs, incorporating elements of trot music, which was the dominant genre of the time.

The Rise and Fall of Comic Carols

In 1966, the widespread embrace of Christmas carols in Korea commenced with the release of "Jingle Bell" by comedian Seo Young-chun and the female duet Gapsun Eulsun, marking the inception of comic Christmas carols in the country. This development led to a vibrant atmosphere during the year-end festivities, as numerous Christmas carols filled the streets, particularly flourishing until the 1990s. The peak of Christmas song popularity occurred in the 1980s, characterized by the remarkable success of holiday tracks by well-known comedians like Shim Hyung-rae. During this era, Christmas albums from prominent comedians and singers achieved significant commercial success, establishing Christmas music as a distinct genre. These albums were often viewed as lucrative ventures, selling tens of thousands of copies with minimal promotion due to their seasonal nature and lack of copyright fees. However, the rise of the digital age and a downturn in the music industry have led to a dramatic decline in Christmas album releases, making them noteworthy events in contemporary times.

Yun Sim-deok's Song of Determination

The publication titled "The Life of a Musician" encompasses the lyrics of "Ode to Death," which was released by Ichiban Record Co., Ltd. in Japan shortly after the passing of Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕), and is characterized as a 'death song.'

‘Praise of Death’ Covers

Some of the more famous covers of "Hymn of Death" are:

S.E.S. Bada - Immortal Songs

Musical actor Min Woohyuk

Other Media

Summary

A century-old love story continues to resonate in contemporary K-dramas, illustrating the profound "scandal" it represented in 1926 and its enduring impact. The true circumstances surrounding the relationship between Yun and Kim remain obscured by time, as the perspectives of family and friends have faded, leaving us with only fragmented narratives. While their actions may have been deemed inappropriate by some, others might view them as acceptable; nonetheless, the tragic conclusion of their story evokes deep sorrow, overshadowed by the scandal that defined their legacy. The causes of their deaths are intertwined with societal norms of the era, familial pressures, and pervasive rumours.

It is noteworthy that the true reason for Yun's death, in particular, may never be fully understood, as neither she nor Kim left behind a suicide note. (From the 2018 Krama Rendition) Kim Woo-jin was aware of their burgeoning feelings yet failed to inform Yun of his marital status or to deter her from taking such a drastic step. Yun's parents viewed her more as a financial asset than as their daughter, prioritizing the futures of her siblings over her well-being. Her siblings, too, placed greater trust in the words of outsiders than in their sister's character. Additionally, societal pressures and the origins of the rumours played significant roles in shaping their tragic fate. Ultimately, Yun's silence and her decision to end her life represent the most profound injustice she inflicted upon herself, rendering the circumstances of both their deaths a poignant tragedy.

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You are not Alone

Samaritans Helpline Number - 116-123 Emergency number - 999

[cosmosbeelover]

The History of Korean Male Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 3/?

The third episode of 'The History of Korean Male Soloists from the 20th Century' highlights prominent Korean musicians who achieved fame in the early 20th century, during the period of Japanese occupation.

The historical documentation related to these artists is frequently unreliable, largely due to the fact that their contributions occurred almost a century ago, before the Korean War, leading to the loss or unavailability of essential records.

Kim Saeng Ryeo (김생려; 金生麗)

Kim Saeng-ryeo is linked to the Yonhui Professional Orchestra (연희전문사중창단), founded in 1929, as discussed in Part 3. The Yonhui College Orchestra/Quartet, led by Hyun Je-myeong (현제명), held biannual concerts from 1930 for nearly a decade, showcasing emerging talent and reflecting the changing musical tastes of the colonial era. This orchestra was instrumental in the development of musicians such as Kim Seong-tae (김성태), Lee In-beom (이인범), Kim Saeng-ryeo (김생려), and Lim Dong-hyeok (임동혁).

Numerous types of orchestras exist, and I discovered a resource that provides a comprehensive overview of each, including philharmonic, symphony, chamber, opera, string, and wind orchestras, among others. This resource will cover a variety of orchestral forms.

Life and Career

Born on November 25th, 1912, in Yongbyon, North Pyongan Province, and passing away in Las Vegas on December 14th, 1995, at the age of 83, he was the only son among five siblings and married to dancer Kwon Ryeo-seong (권려성).  His father, a devout Christian and elder, introduced him to the church at an early age, fostering a particular fascination with the organ. Shortly after his birth, his father established a church in Bukcheong, where Kim Saeng-ryeo spent his formative years.

He played a crucial role in the establishment of the Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra and was instrumental in founding the Seoul Symphony Orchestra after Korea's liberation, thereby leaving a significant mark on the country's symphonic music scene. His early life unfolded in Anju, South Pyongan Province, and Bukcheong, South Hamgyong Province. Like other key figures in the early development of Western music in Korea, such as Hyeon Je-yeong (현제명),  Lee Heung- ryeol (이흥렬), and Gye Jeong-sik (계정식), Kim was raised in a Protestant household, which provided him with early access to Western musical traditions.

From a young age, he demonstrated exceptional skill in playing both the organ and harmonica. His journey with the violin began in elementary school, where he had already shown a unique aptitude for the organ and harmonica, often playing during his free time. His passion for music persisted even after starting school, as he would occasionally leave class to visit a church and immerse himself in musical experiences.

In the second grade, his fascination with music deepened when he encountered an amateur violinist, which inspired him to take up the violin. This pivotal moment marked a significant shift in his musical journey. After completing elementary school, he moved to Seoul to pursue further education, enrolling in the second high school, now known as Gyeongbok High School (경복고등학교; 景福高等學校), where he distinguished himself as a disciplined and diligent student.

While attending Gyeongseong Jeigo High School, he received violin lessons from Boots, the wife of a foreign doctor at Severance Hospital (세브란스병원). His serious commitment to violin studies intensified after meeting Gye Kye-sik, a returnee from Germany. He continued to practice diligently at Yonhui College (연희전문학교; 延禧專門學校) and, upon graduation, took on roles as an accompanist and conductor for the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station Orchestra (조선방송협회(朝鮮放送協會). However, during the Gwangju Student Incident https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwangju_Student_Independence_Movement (광주 학생 독립 운동; 光州學生獨立運動), he actively participated in protests, which led to his pursuit by the Japanese police and subsequent suspension from school. He was only reinstated after submitting a written account of his actions, but he continued to face challenges, particularly from his Japanese teachers, ultimately graduating under difficult circumstances.

Throughout his academic evolution, his commitment to music remained steadfast. After finishing elementary school, he moved to Seoul to further his education, enrolling in Jeigobo (제이고보), now recognized as Gyeongbuk High School. His association with Kim Hyung-jun (김형준; 金亨俊), a violinist and conductor, facilitated his involvement with the Gyeongseong Central Orchestra (경성중앙관현악단; 京城中央管絃樂團) as a violinist. Upon graduating from Gyeongbuk High School, he encountered Gye Jeong-sik (계정식; 桂貞植), a returnee from Germany, who helped him strengthen his foundational skills in violin, leading to his participation as a second violinist in a string quartet directed by Gye Jeong -sik.

Despite familial opposition to his musical aspirations, he persevered and, after graduating from Gyeongbuk High School, gained admission to Yonhee College through the recommendation of Hyun Je-myeong (현 종양). There, he continued to engage in musical activities and was appointed as the second violinist in a string quartet under Gye Jeong-sik's (계정식; 桂貞植) leadership. Although he attempted to follow his father's wishes by applying to Severance Medical School, he was unsuccessful and instead enrolled in the liberal arts department at Yonhee College, where he benefited from diverse musical experiences and eventually became the head of the school band.

Under the mentorship of Hyun Je-myeong, who began his role in 1929, he collaborated with notable musicians such as Kwak Jeong- seon (곽정선), Kwak Jeong-sun (곽정선), and Kim Gwan (김관). In the early 1930s, he worked with Kim Seong-tae (김성태) (violin), Lee Yu-seon (이유선) (vocal), and Hwang Jae-gyeong (황재경) (flute) within the music department at Yonhee College, further advancing his musical skills. However, following a victorious sports match against Gyeongseong Medical School, which included Japanese students, he celebrated with the band members, leading to an incident that resulted in his indefinite suspension after being held accountable for the situation.

His time in Japan represented a transitional phase, but upon his return to Korea two years later, he re-enrolled at Yonhui College. There, he secured a position with the Gyeongseong Central Broadcasting Station Orchestra and supplemented his income by working as a violin accompanist for the prestigious Victor Records orchestra. Although he graduated in 1937, two years later than his classmates due to his studies abroad, he remained actively engaged in music, including performing violin solos during chapel services at the college.

Kim Saeng-ryeo's experience at Yeonjeon coincided with the return of Hyun Je-myeong from the United States, marking a high point for the Yeonjeon Music Club. During this vibrant period, he collaborated with notable musicians such as Kim Seong-tae, Jeong Hee-seok, Lee In-beom (이익), and Hwang Jae-gyeong. After completing his studies at Yeonjeon, he continued his career as an accompanist for both the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station Orchestra and Victor Records.

Following the return of Hong Nan-pa (홍난파; 洪蘭坡) (April 10, 1898 – August 30, 1941) from the United States, who expanded the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Orchestra, Kim Saeng-ryeo assumed the role of conductor, fostering a strong musical partnership with Hong. During this time, he also developed a close relationship with Kim Seong-tae, visiting him to study harmony and composition. When Hong Nan-pa fell ill, Kim dedicated himself to supporting him, managing the broadcasting station's responsibilities in his absence and providing care until Hong's passing.

Hong Nan-pa's counsel became a guiding principle for him: “If you aspire to be a flower, abandon music. If you wish to be a seed that flourishes for future generations, persist in music.” This philosophy provided him with resilience and served as an enduring compass during challenging times.

In the 1940s, he adopted the name Kaneyama as part of a broader national integration initiative. Following the death of Hong Nan-pa, Kim Saeng-ryeo assumed leadership of the orchestra and invited Gye Jeong -sik.to conduct. However, when the broadcasting station attempted to replace Gye-sik with a Japanese conductor, the Korean members, led by Kim Saeng-ryeo, vehemently resisted. Ultimately, when their efforts were thwarted, he chose to resign and establish a private orchestra.

He demonstrated his violin prowess at the inaugural concert of the Joseon Symphony Orchestra and at an event organized by the Joseon Music Association in 1941. That same year, he performed a solo at the "Peninsula Entire Enlistment Song Recital," which marked the introduction of the conscription system. He also participated in the "Music Patriot Weekly Music Festival" at Bumin Hall (부민관; 府民館) alongside prominent musicians. In 1942, he became the conductor of the Kyungsung/Gyeongseong Welfare Chamber Orchestra (경성후생실내악단; 京城厚生室內樂團) and joined the National Mobilization Federation of Korea/ Music Popularization Corps (國民音樂普及挺身隊) in 1943, performing at various patriotic events, including the "Battleship Donation and Patriotic Chamber Symphony Night." As the first violinist of the Kim Saeng-ryeo String Quartet and later a representative of the Hwaseong Chamber Orchestra, he continued to perform at events that celebrated the conscription system and supported pro-Japanese organizations.

Bumin Hall (부민관; 府民館) in the early 1940s

In 1942-1943, he established the Husung Chamber Orchestra following his resignation from the broadcasting station, which subsequently toured across the nation. Notably, soprano Kim Cheon-ae, a founding member of the orchestra, performed "Bongseonhwa" (봉선화) during the tour, providing solace to audiences mourning their country's plight, which led to her being monitored by the Japanese authorities.

In 1944, the Husung Chamber Orchestra relocated to Xingjing, Manchuria, where its members integrated into the Xingjing Symphony Orchestra. As liberation approached in 1945, he returned to Korea at the behest of Hyun Je-myeong to reestablish the Husung Orchestra, coinciding with the country's liberation. He took on the role of conductor for the newly formed Goryeo Symphony Orchestra in 1945, having previously been an active violinist during the Japanese colonial era. Following liberation, at Hyun Je-myeong's request, Kim Saeng-ryeo mobilized efforts to assemble around 50 musicians in the fall of 1945, successfully founding the Goryeo Symphony Orchestra under conductor Gye Jeong -sik., marking the inception of Korea's first orchestra post-liberation.

‘Bongsunga’ (봉선화) sheet music by Kim Hyung-jun, composed by Hong Nan-pa (100 Years of Our Western Music)

He subsequently departed from the Goryeo Symphony Orchestra. In 1946, he co-established the Seoul Music Club (서울음악동호회), recognized as the first chamber orchestra formed post-liberation of Korea, alongside Lee Jae-ok (이재옥), Jeong Hoon-mo (정훈모), Lee In-hyeong (이인형), Ahn Seong-gyo (안성교), Oh Byeong-do (오병도), and Jeon Bong-cho (전봉초). This initiative served as a foundation for the eventual formation of the Seoul Symphony Orchestra, where he assumed the role of conductor and later founded the Kim Saeng-ryeo Quartet in 1947, collaborating with Lee Yong-cheol (이용철), Choi Gyu-yeong (최규영), and Kim Jun-deok (김준덕). He was also a member of the Seoul Orchestra, alongside Jo Bong-deok (조봉덕), Lee Gyu-su, and Kim Soon-deok (김순덕). In 1947, he took the initiative to establish and manage the Seoul Symphony Orchestra, which was the precursor to the Seoul City Symphony Orchestra (서울시립교향악단; Seoul Philharmonic orchestra ,─市立交響樂團) founded in 1948, drawing from the Korea Symphony Orchestra (고려교향악단; 高麗交響樂團) and the Seoul Orchestra, and made his conducting debut at the inaugural concert held in February of the following year.

1950s picture of the Seoul Symphony Orchestra

Kim Saeng-ryeo embarked on his professional journey as a conductor through a prestigious invitation extended by the U.S. State Department. This opportunity allowed him to immerse himself in the world of classical music, where he had the privilege of studying under some of the most esteemed maestros of the time, including the legendary Leonard Bernstein and the renowned Eugene Ormandy. These formative experiences not only honed his skills but also enriched his understanding of orchestral dynamics and interpretation. As his conducting career progressed, Kim Saeng-ryeo showcased his exceptional talent by leading prominent orchestras, such as the Boston Symphony Orchestra and the Philadelphia Philharmonic. His performances on international stages garnered acclaim and recognition, establishing him as a significant figure in the global classical music scene.

Upon returning to Korea, Kim Saeng-ryeo was instrumental in founding the Seoul City Symphony Orchestra in November 1958. His vision and commitment were key in defining the orchestra's character, and he assumed the roles of permanent conductor and representative. Initially, he played as the first violinist when the orchestra commenced its activities in January of that year. The inaugural concert was conducted by Kim Seong-tae, and soon after, the orchestra began regular performances under the direction of German conductor Rolph Jacobi, who served as an advisor to the Central Broadcasting Station. However, following Jacobi's unexpected departure to Germany, Kim Saeng-ryeo took over as conductor for a concert in Daegu, marking the beginning of his conducting career.

In October 1995, Kim received a distinguished invitation to conduct at the Korean Symphony Orchestra's 50th anniversary concert, he performed from a wheelchair and received enthusiastic response from the audience.

Under Kim's direction, the orchestra not only expanded its repertoire but also undertook extensive tours throughout Southeast Asia, performing in nations such as Vietnam, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. These tours highlighted the orchestra's talent and promoted cultural exchange, enhancing the appreciation of classical music in the region. Kim played a crucial role in negotiating the orchestra's establishment with the Seoul Metropolitan Government, ensuring a strong foundation for its operations and performances. His dedication to the orchestra's development established it as a significant entity in Korea's cultural scene, quickly gaining popularity among audiences, who often displayed overwhelming enthusiasm during performances. Notable works conducted by him included Kim Seong-tae's "Capriccio," Schubert's "Unfinished Symphony," and Ravel's "Bolero Dance" at various concerts.

Throughout his tenure, Kim Saeng-ryeo conducted a series of notable performances that left a lasting impact on the Korean music scene. Among these were Puccini's "Tosca," which he conducted in October 1958, and the double bill of Leoncavallo's "Pagliacci" and Mascagni's "Cavalleria Rusticana" in June 1959. These productions were significant not only for their artistic merit but also for their role in introducing Western operatic traditions to Korean audiences. In November of the same year, he conducted Bizet's "Carmen" at the National Theatre of Korea, further solidifying his reputation as a conductor capable of delivering powerful and emotive performances.

Photo 1 -> Kim Saeng-ryeo 1972 Photo 2 -> Newspaper clipping published in June 25th 1972

Despite successfully navigating numerous challenges to develop the orchestra, the onset of the Korean War compelled him to abandon his ambitions for the ensemble, leading to a three-month period of hiding under communist rule until Seoul was recaptured on September 28. Ultimately, the Seoul Symphony Orchestra was disbanded after its 23rd regular concert due to the war. At its formation, the orchestra included a wide array of musicians, featuring first and second violinists, violists, cellists, and various woodwind and brass players. Among the distinguished members were Kim Saeng-ryeo and Jo Bong-deok on first violin, alongside a diverse group of instrumentalists such as flutists, oboists, clarinettists, and trumpeters. The ensemble also incorporated percussionists and a pianist, creating a rich auditory experience that defined the orchestra's performances during its short yet significant existence.

Full List of the members at the time of its founding of Seoul Symphony Orchestra were as follows: . 1st Violin (제1 바이올린): Kim Saeng-ryeo (김생려), Jo Bong-deok (조봉덕; 趙鳳德), Lee Gyu-su (이규수; 李奎秀), Kim Soon-deok (김순덕; 金順德), Lee Gye-seong (이계성; 李桂成), Baek Hae-je (백해제; 白海帝), Lee In-hwan (이인환; 李仁煥), Heo Sang (허상; 許湘), Lee Sung-tae (이숭태; 李崇泰), Shin Sang-cheol (신상철; 申相徹), Kim Hae-ryong (김해룡; 金海龍). . 2nd Violins (제2 바이올린): Lee Jae-ok (이재옥; 李在玉), Nam Chang-hyun (남창현; 南昌鉉), Jo Gyu-won (조규원; 趙奎元), Choi Ho-won (최호원; 崔豪源), Moon In-yeon (문인연; 文麟連), Lee Dong-hee (이동희; 李東熙), Kim Seon-hwa (김선화; 金善化), Jeon Chang-jae (전창재; 全���宰), Jeon Oh-bok (전오복; 全五福), Park Jun-hwang (박준황; 朴俊晃). . Violas (비올라): Ahn Seong-gyo (안성교; 安聖敎), Lim Chun-ok (임춘옥; 林春沃), Lee Yeong-don (이영돈; 李泳敦), Lee Jae-man (이재만; 李裁晩). . Cello (첼로): Jeon Bong-cho (전봉초; 全鳳楚), Woo Dal-hyeong (우달형; 禹達亨), Lee In-gyu (이인규; 李寅圭), Park Guk-rok (박국록; 朴國錄), Kim Jong-myeong (김종명; 金鍾明), Lee Jeong-eon (이정언; 李禎彦), Yoo Jeong-yong (유정용; 劉廷鏞). . Flute (플루트): Oh Byeong-do (오병도; 吳炳道), Lee Gi-yoon (이기윤; 李基潤), Hong Su-man (홍수만; 洪壽萬). . Oboe (오보에): Lee Byeong-woo (이병우; 李炳祐). . Clarinet (클라리넷): Hong Gwang-eun (홍광은; 洪光銀), Kim Seong-hun (김성훈; 金成勳). . Bass (파곳): Kim Yeong-gyu (김영규; 金英圭), Na Moon (나문; 羅文). . Horn (혼): Jeong Hoe-gap (정회갑; 鄭回甲), Kim Jong-sun (김종순; 金宗純), Kim Yun-seong (김윤성; 金潤成), and Hyeon Su-so (현수소; 玄壽瀟). . Trumpets (트럼펫): Kim Jong-dae (김종대; 金鍾大), Park Ju-doo (박주두; 朴柱斗), and Kim Man-bok (김만복; 金萬福). . Timpani (팀파니): Han In-hang (한인항; 韓麟恒). . Battery/ Baeteoli (배터리): Kwon Yong-jin (권용진; 權龍鎭), Han Seong-jin (한성진; 韓聖振). . Piano (피아노): Lee In-hye (이인형; 李仁亨). . Conductor/Arrangement (지휘·편곡): Jacobi (쟈코비), Kim Seong-tae (김성태; 金聖泰). . Vocalists (성악): Kim Cheon-ae (김천애; 金天愛), Kim Hye-ran (김혜란; 金惠蘭), Lee In-beom (이인범; 李仁範), Kim Hyeong-no (김형노; 金炯魯).

The Symphony Orchestra of Seoul City gave a concert in Hong Kong on April 20, 1947. (Photo by: Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)

Following the recapture of Seoul during the Second Battle of Seoul in 1950, the establishment of the Seoul Symphony Orchestra was initiated alongside the formation of the Naval Military Training Band, which served as the precursor to the Seoul Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra. This endeavour marked a significant cultural development in a time of conflict.

In his role as conductor, he assembled musicians and sought support from the Navy to create the Navy Military Band. Despite the ongoing war, this ensemble was unique in its provision of employment for musicians and opportunities for music enthusiasts to enjoy performances. He maintained his leadership of the band throughout the duration of the war, ensuring its continued presence in the musical landscape.

As a founding member of the Korean Musicians Association established on November 8, 1949, he played a pivotal role in the organization of the Naval Military Music Band in October 1950, where he served as captain. Following the appointment of all 120 members of the Naval Cultural Promotion Corps as civilian naval officers, the band held its inaugural concert in November 1950 at Sigong Hall, celebrating both the Navy's fifth anniversary and the recapture of Seoul. The band, which returned to Seoul in 1953, became influential in the performance scene, showcasing significant works and ultimately evolving into the Seoul Symphony Orchestra, which was later restructured into the Seoul Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra in 1960.

The main characters Patty Kim (김혜자; 金惠子) (left) and Kwak Gyu-seok (곽규석) (Right) at the premiere of the musical 'Saljjagi Obseye' (살짜기 옵세아이) by the Yegreen Orchestra in 1966. [Joongang Photo]

Kim was appointed as the first conductor of the Seoul City Symphony Orchestra, a role he maintained until 1961. Initially optimistic about fostering a vibrant symphony orchestra movement, his ambitions were thwarted by the political turmoil surrounding the April 19 Student Revolution in 1960 and the May 16 Military Coup in 1961. These events culminated in his resignation, prompted by legal disputes involving current and former orchestra members. Nevertheless, during his tenure, Kim Saeng-ryeo actively guided the orchestra, undertaking performances both domestically and internationally, including tours throughout Southeast Asia, thereby establishing a significant foundation for the orchestral movement in Korea.

In January 1962, Kim assumed the role of director for the Yegreen Orchestra, which was founded with the guiding principle of "Remembering the Past and Yesterday for Tomorrow." By September of that year, the orchestra had successfully staged five performances of the "Chuseok Play," showcasing a variety of musical selections. After the orchestra's dissolution, the exact timing of which is uncertain, Kim established the Arirang Folk Arts Troupe, which toured extensively across the United States, Canada, Europe, and other regions, playing a vital role in the dissemination of South Korean culture.

In the same year, Kim also held several significant positions, including head of the music department at Kyunghee University, representative of the Yegreen Orchestra, and artistic member and commander of the Naval Military Music Band. His diverse engagements in these organizations, along with his role in representing the Seoul Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra, highlighted his prominent influence in the South Korean music landscape during this era.

1967 Yegreen Orchestra ‘Kkotnim, Kkotnim, Kkotnim’ (꽃님, 꽃님, 꽃님). The middle of the second row is Na Yeong-su (나영수), and next to him on the left is Hwang Ik-pyeong (황익평), Moon Hye-ran (문혜란), Lim Yeong-ung (임영웅), Park Yong-gu (박용구), Choi Chang-kwon (최창권), and Kwak Gyu-seok (곽규석) (Fry Boy). The man sitting in the middle of the front row is Hwang Un-heon (황운헌) (Chief of the Literature Department).

In 1962, he travelled to the United States to pursue studies in conducting, and by 1971, he had taken on a professorship in the Department of Music at Hanyang University. He returned to the United States in 1976, where he held the position of permanent conductor for the Southern California Philharmonic Orchestra until 1992.

In October 1995, he received a distinguished invitation to conduct at the Korean Symphony Orchestra's 50th anniversary concert, performing from a wheelchair and receiving an enthusiastic response from the audience. His impact on the Korean symphonic scene was significant; he established the Seoul Symphony Orchestra Association and the Seoul Symphony Orchestra, while also enhancing Korean music through his leadership of the Yegreen Orchestra, his role with the Arts Council, and his teaching at Kyunghee University. His achievements were acknowledged with numerous awards, including the Swedish Red Cross Medal and the Seoul City Cultural Award. Kim passed away due to diabetes-related complications at Sunrise Hospital in Las Vegas, USA, on December 14, 1995, at the age of 83.

Activities and Achievements

Kim Saeng-ryeo's career in music began in 1939 when he served as the conductor for the Seoul Central Broadcasting Station Orchestra. He played a pivotal role in establishing several orchestras, including the Seoul Welfare Chamber Orchestra in 1942, where he was a violinist, and the Goryeo Symphony Orchestra in 1945, for which he was the founding conductor. His influence continued with the founding of the Seoul City Symphony Orchestra in 1948, where he also held the position of conductor. By 1950, he became the Permanent Conductor of the Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra in the United States, while also commanding the Naval Music Band (해군정훈음악대; 海軍政訓音樂隊).

The 14th Program of the Korea Symphony Orchestra (1947)

Throughout his career, Kim received numerous accolades for his contributions to music. Notable awards include the Prime Minister's Cultural Medal in 1948, the Merit Award from the Swedish Red Cross in 1951, and the Seoul City Cultural Award in 1955. His international recognition was further solidified with the Greek Theatre Arts Medal in 1964 and the Republic of Korea National Academy of Arts Award in 1974, among others. These honours reflect his significant impact on the cultural landscape both in Korea and abroad.

In addition to his conducting roles, Kim was actively involved in various artistic initiatives. He conducted the Danwood Symphony Orchestra during the Bergsha Music Festival in 1953 and led the Arirang Folk Art Troupe on tours in the United States and worldwide in 1964. His collaboration with prominent orchestras, such as the Ormandy and Boston Symphony Orchestra in 1968, showcased his versatility. Notably, he celebrated the 500th regular concert of the Seoul City Symphony Orchestra in 1994, marking a significant milestone in his enduring legacy within the music community.

Seoul City Orchestra "Kim Saeng- ryeo's Reminiscence" Concert

Seoul City Orchestra "Kim Saeng-ryeo Reminiscence" Concert 11th Sejong Centre for the Performing Arts - Reporter Ryu Yun-jong

The "Emperor" of 44 years ago has been revived as today's "Emperor." The Seoul City Orchestra's regular concert, held at 7:30 PM on the 11th in the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts Main Hall, will be a meaningful stage with the subtitle "Kim Saeng-ryeo Reminiscence." It is a place to commemorate the first anniversary of the death of the late Kim Saeng-ryeo, the founder of the Seoul City Orchestra, and to honor his achievements and will. In this concert, Kim Won-mo (professor at Dankook University) will be the guest conductor and Baek Nak-ho (chairman of the Korea Music Association) will perform Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 5 "Emperor."

서울시립교향악단 제 545회 정기연주회 "김생려 회상" [1996] Seoul City Symphony Orchestra 545th Regular Concert "Kim Saeng-ryeo Reminiscence" [1996]

Although it is a collaboration stage between a veteran pianist and a mid-career conductor that anyone would know by name, their meeting that day holds special meaning. In the midst of the smoke of the 1952 war, Baek Nak-ho (백낙호) performed "Emperor" with the Naval Music Band, the predecessor of the Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra, under the direction of Kim Saeng-ryeo in Busan, where he was a refugee. Professor Kim Won-mo (김원모) is Kim Saeng-ryeo's second son. He arranged Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 6 "Pathetique," which his father enjoyed conducting, as the second half of the concert.

Baek Nak-ho (백낙호) recalled, "During the three years of my refuge in Busan, I spent my time with Kim Saeng-ryeo in the Naval Music Band, and we built a friendship as seniors and juniors."

At the concert, Lim Won-sik (임원식; 林元植) (Professor Emeritus of Chugye University for the Arts), who played a leading role in the founding of the National Symphony Orchestra (now the KBS Symphony Orchestra) in 1957 and competed with the Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra in good faith, will share his memories of the deceased in the form of reminiscences.

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Part 2 will be coming out soon!

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 3/?

The third episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' highlights prominent Korean musicians who achieved fame in the early 20th century, during the period of Japanese occupation.

The historical documentation related to these artists is frequently unreliable, largely due to the fact that their contributions occurred almost a century ago, before the Korean War, leading to the loss or unavailability of essential records.

Yun Sim Deok (윤심덕; 尹心悳)

This episode is intended for a mature audience, so I want to issue a warning before proceeding, as it will discuss the topic of self-exit. This episode revisits the life of the renowned soprano Yun Sim-deok. In my initial discussion, the information presented was somewhat limited, as I had only recently begun my exploration of Korean artists. This revised episode will provide a more comprehensive and detailed account of her life and her romantic relationship.

"You poor soul, passionate about life, you are a dancer on the sword" - From Yun Sim-deok’s ‘In Praise of Death'

The inaugural official female vocalist and soprano on the Korean Peninsula, she is renowned for her signature piece, "Ode to Death." Her relationship with playwright Kim Woo-jin has garnered significant attention, particularly due to its tragic nature, as it reflects the cultural phenomenon in the Korea Strait where couples, disillusioned by their inability to fulfil their love, choose to end their lives together. This narrative, akin to Japan's concept of Shinju (心中), sparked widespread speculation and controversy during that period.

Life and Career

Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕; 尹心悳), also known by her nickname Su-seon (水仙), was born on July 25, 1897, in Pyongyang and passed away on August 4, 1926. She was the second of four children in a family of musicians, with her parents serving as pastors at the Namsanjae Church. Her family included her older sister Yun Sim-seong (윤심성), a soprano, her younger brother Yun Gi-seong (윤기성), a baritone, and her younger sister Yun Seong-deok (윤성덕), who specialized in piano, highlighting the musical environment in which she was raised.

In 1907, Yun Sim-deok commenced her education at Jinnampo Private Girls' School, subsequently attending Pyongyang Soongui Girls' School and Pyongyang Girls' High School. She completed her studies at the Gyeongseong Girls' High School (京城女高普) Teachers' Training Institute in 1918. After graduation, she served as a music teacher in Wonju, Gangwon Province, for about a year before being chosen, alongside Han Ki-ju (한기주; 韓琦柱), for a government-funded program to study at the Tokyo Music School in Japan in 1919. With the assistance of Sekiya, the director of academic affairs, she enrolled in the vocal music department, supported by funds from the Japanese Government-General of Korea. While studying in Tokyo, she resided in Mokpo (木浦), and although initially classified as a special exchange student, her enrolment in the Class A Teacher’s Course (甲種師範科) indicates a shift in her aspirations towards becoming a music educator rather than solely focusing on vocal music.

Notably, Yun Sim-deok's younger sister, Yun Seong-deok (윤성덕)(1903-1968), mirrored her sister's trajectory by also entering the field of music education, eventually becoming a professor in the music department at Ewha Woman’s University. This familial connection underscores the significant impact of their upbringing on their professional paths, contributing to the broader landscape of music education in Korea during that era.

On December 19, 1920, she took part in a concert commemorating Beethoven's 150th anniversary. In 1921, while collaborating with traveling theatre groups like Dongwoohoe, which consisted of students from Tokyo, she performed solo pieces such as "Rose" and "Twilight Stream" prior to the play <Kim Yeong-il's Sa>. During this time, she developed a friendship with Kim Woo-jin (김우진) , the son of affluent Kim Seong-gyu, who was pursuing English Literature at Waseda University. This relationship reportedly evolved into a romantic one, and their subsequent mysterious disappearance sparked speculation, although their friends insisted it remained platonic.

After completing her education, she returned to Korea, having fallen in love with him. Following her music studies in 1922 and a year as an assistant teacher, she debuted as a soprano with a solo concert at the Jongno Central Youth Centre. Upon her return to Korea in June 1923, she held a vocal recital at the Janggokcheonjeong Public Hall on July 7. Although she achieved recognition through national tours and performances, she encountered financial hardships while working as a private instructor to support her family. While living as the concubine of a wealthy man named Lee, she received financial assistance that enabled her to send her younger sibling, Yun Seong-deok, to study in the United States. Eventually, she relocated to Harbin, where she embraced an independent lifestyle. Despite her acclaim for a powerful vocal ability, sustaining a career in Western classical music proved to be difficult, prompting her to shift towards pop music and acting. This transition ultimately led Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕) to become a prominent figure in Seoul's concert scene, leveraging the growing fascination with Western music.

After returning from her studies in Japan and settling in Mokpo to care for her two siblings, Kim Woo-jin (김우진) harboured ambitions of studying abroad again, motivated by the New Theatre Movement. However, he faced disappointment upon receiving a letter from her after her return from Harbin, marking their reunion during a time of heightened public interest in her shift from a musical troupe to the theatre group Towolhoe. Despite her parents' objections to her theatrical ambitions, she performed in the play Dongdo (東道) and maintained correspondence with Kim Woo-jin, who offered her financial support. Subsequently, she left Towolhoe to form a new theatre group, Baekjohoe (白鳥會), with her colleagues. When the theatre movement faced difficulties, she secretly met with Kim Woo-jin in Mokpo before traveling to Seoul, where they found comfort in each other's company until his departure for Tokyo. Later, she journeyed to Osaka (大阪) with Yun Seong-deok, who was heading to the United States for piano studies, to record for Ildong Gramophone Company, where she reunited with Kim Woo-jin once more. Among the songs she recorded for Ilchuk (日蓄) Records, accompanied by her younger brother on piano, was "死の讚美" (Death Praise Beauty).

She performed at the Yeonjeon Concert on July 20, 1923, and participated in the Gyeongseong Music Band’s Autumn Concert on October 13. Her appearances continued with the Myodong Praise Team's music competition on October 18, followed by Gyejeongsik's farewell concert on October 19, and the Yeonhui Professional Music Concert on May 11, 1924. Additionally, she took part in the Gyeongseong Medical College Music Department's concert on June 14 and the Joseon Women's Education Association's famine sympathy concert on October 18, showcasing her versatility and commitment to her craft.

During her tenure as a music instructor at Gyeongseong Normal School, she established herself as a prominent vocalist through her concert performances. In 1925, she made a significant career shift by joining the theatre company Towolhoe, where she gained further acclaim as a singer, making impactful television appearances and recording music. Her performance of "Hymn of Death" particularly struck a chord with audiences, enhancing her reputation in the entertainment industry.

After an extensive period with Towolhoe, she redirected her career towards the music sector, achieving notable success through her recordings and broadcasts. Her fame escalated with the release of "Ode to Death" by Ildong Gramophone Company, which received considerable attention with 100,000 copies containing the song were sold, especially after her premature death. Upon her return to Korea, she was celebrated as the queen of the Joseon Orchestra, although she later transitioned back to acting in 1926. Her contributions were recognized at the New Year's Music Concert by Our Boys' Association in February 1926, and her performances were highlighted in various publications, reflecting both her talent and the controversies surrounding her artistic choices.

Her journey into the world of singing commenced in Japan, where she was motivated by Lee Se-gi (이세기), the manager of the Gyeongseong branch of Osaka Ildong Records (Jevipyo), leading to the recording of eleven songs. Following the departure of her younger brother to the United States, she and Kim Woo-jin (김우진) were on their way back to Korea on August 4, 1926, aboard the ferry Tokuju Maru from Shimonoseki when they both leaped into the Genkai Sea. The Ilchukgwa Jebiyo Joseon Record features approximately 20 songs, including Western compositions such as “Net Dream” (Old Dream), “Ttanup River” (Danube River), “Maggie’s Memories,” “Smiling Laurel Flower,” and “The Boat Leaves,” all accompanied by Yun Seong-deok on piano. Unfortunately, her life took a tragic turn when she and her partner, Kim Woo-jin, ended their lives by jumping into the Genkai Sea, marking a sorrowful conclusion to her complex artistic journey.

Kim Woo-jin (김우진; 金祐鎭)

The name Kim Woo-jin may also be rendered as Kim U-jin in English translations; however, I will refer to him as Kim Woo-jin for the duration of this episode. I will not discuss his interaction with Yun Sim-deok in detail, as this topic has been covered in both the previous and subsequent sections.

Kim Woo-jin (김우진) was a significant figure in Korean literature, recognized as a playwright and theatre theorist during the Japanese colonial era, with notable works including "Shipwreck" and "Wild Boar/Pig." He was also a poet, essayist, and dramatist, distinguished as the first professional literary critic in Korea. His contributions to literature, particularly the poem "Theory of Life and Death" (1926) and the play "Wild Pig" (1926), have garnered attention.

Despite his literary accomplishments, Kim's work remained largely unacknowledged until the late 1970s, with a posthumous publication in 1983. His deep understanding of Western literature and insightful engagement with Western philosophy have since been recognized as pivotal to his legacy.

Life and Career

Cho-seong (焦星), also known as Susan (水山), was born on September 19, 1897, in Jangseong-gun. He was the son of Seong-gyu (星圭), the governor of Jangseong County, and his lineage included a grandfather who served as a ceremonial official and landowner. After completing his elementary education in Mokpo, he relocated to Japan, where he attended Kumamoto Agricultural School and later enrolled in the preparatory course at Waseda University (早稲田大学), ultimately graduating from the English Literature Department in 1924.

From an early age, he aspired to be a poet and began composing poetry during his time at Kumamoto Agricultural School. His passion for the performing arts led him to establish the Theatre Research Group, Geukye Art Association, alongside peers such as Jo Myeong-hee (조명희) and Hong Hae-seong (홍해성) in 1920. In 1921, he founded the Dongwoohoe Touring Theatre Troupe, managing performance costs and directing productions, including a translation of Dunsany's one-act play, “The Splendid Gate.” After returning to Mokpo post-graduation, he served as president of Sangseong Hapmyeong Company while producing a significant body of work, including 48 poems, five plays, and approximately 20 critiques. However, personal and societal challenges culminated in his tragic suicide on August 4, 1926, when he jumped into the Genkai Sea with soprano singer Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕).

Waseda University students in 1916

He was raised in a conservative Confucian household, yet he became deeply engaged with Western modern philosophy. Influenced by thinkers such as Nietzsche and Marx, he developed a distinct ideological framework that embraced socialism in the wake of the Russian Revolution. This intellectual journey led him to resonate with the expressionism of Strindberg and the reformist theatrical ideas of Shaw, ultimately fostering a rejection of traditional artistic conventions.

The ideological underpinnings of his works and the circumstances surrounding his suicide warrant examination. His poetry, particularly in pieces like "Death," "Theory of Life and Death," and "Theory of Death," reflects a profound denial of reality and a call for reform. Similarly, his plays reveal an autobiographical narrative intertwined with contemporary societal struggles. Notably, "The Disillusionment of Poet Du-deok" illustrates the clash between traditional and modern ethics, while "Lee Yeong-nyeo" employs naturalistic techniques to portray the harsh realities faced by the impoverished in Mokpo. His notable works, "Shipwreck" and "Wild Boar," stand as pioneering examples of expressionism in Korean literature, showcasing avant-garde experimentation during a time dominated by melodrama.

This work is notably distinguished by its profound exploration of social reform ideas and its ethereal stylistic approach. The author described this piece as his 'march of life,' imbuing it with the qualities of a clinical analysis conducted by a progressive thinker.

Bust of Kim Woo-jin at Mokpo Literature Hall.

Among his numerous insightful critiques are notable essays such as “On the So-Called Modern Theatre,” “The Story of the Free Theatre,” “The Life of Saong,” and “On Western and American Playwrights.” His critique “Seeing Artificial Humans at the Tsukiji Small Theatre” exemplifies his theatrical analysis. Furthermore, in “I Encourage Creation,” he methodically presented expressionism as the most fitting creative approach for Korean writers seeking to transcend traditional norms. His candid perspective on literature is evident in essays like “Bury the Literature of Lee Gwang-su” and “Ego-Viewed Class Literature and Critics,” where he rigorously challenged enlightenment nationalism and humanitarian ideals. In “A Word to the Korean Literature World Without the Korean Language,” he advocated for the revitalization of the pure Korean language, drawing on Western examples, and called for the establishment of a new literary framework, the creation of dictionaries, and the preservation of oral traditions, folk songs, and children’s songs. He also emphasized the need for a distinct poetic rhythm, the translation of foreign literature into Korean, and the increased accessibility of newspapers and magazines.

He was an innovative playwright who transcended the conventional literary landscape of his era, which was mired in enlightened nationalism, humanitarianism, and sentimentalism. By effectively channelling the struggles of his time into his plays, he distinguished himself as the sole playwright to directly engage with expressionism in his artistic endeavours.

Furthermore, he is recognized as a critic who contributed significant theoretical insights to the contemporary theatre and literary scene, drawing from his vast knowledge and ground-breaking critical viewpoint. Additionally, he played a crucial role as a theatre activist, being the first to spearhead the new theatre movement.

The complete works of Woojin Kim, published in 3 volumes in 2000.

A bust commemorating Kim Woo-jin is situated in the Kim Woo-jin Hall, part of the Mokpo Literature Hall established by Mokpo City.

Following their deaths, little information has emerged about Kim Woo-jin and Yun Sim-deok. Unlike Yun, who remained unmarried, Kim had a family, with his son Bang Han (방한) becoming a professor at Seoul National University. Kim Woo-jin's grave, reportedly unmarked by a body, is believed to be on Molmoe Mountain in Muan-gun, Jeollanam-do. Mokpo City later inaugurated the Mokpo Literature Hall and the Kim Woo-jin Hall to celebrate his literary contributions, alongside local figures such as Park Hwa-seong (박화성), Cha Beom-seok (차범석), and Kim Hyeon (김현). In 2000, a three-volume collection of his works was published. The legacy of Yun Sim-deok, Kim's beloved, is preserved through a faded photograph and her haunting rendition of "Praise of Death," (사의찬미) which evokes a sense of nostalgia and blurs the lines between traditional ballads and contemporary music.

Love Life

What is love? - Love is a connection between a man and a woman who share mutual feelings and enjoy each other's company.

A scene from the 1991 film [Ode to Death] starring the late actor Lim Sung-min (left) and Jang Mi-hee. 배우 고(故) 임성민(왼쪽)과 장미희 주연의 영화 [사의 찬미]의 한 장면, 1991년 작품이다.

Modern Art Pioneers Sacrificed to Convention

Artistic sympathy that emerged from trials, a relationship that goes beyond a simple affair, a catalyst for free love and popular art, leading Koreans to modernity.

The term gained popularity in Korea during the 1910s, particularly after its mention in Cho Joong-hwan's (조중환) adapted novel, "Ssangokru," (쌍옥루) which was serialized in "Maeil Shinbo" (매일신보) in 1912. Prior to this, romantic relationships were typically arranged by parents during the Joseon Dynasty. The story of Gapdol and Gap-soon, who secretly met at a watermill, illustrates how such love was often frowned upon, causing embarrassment to families and communities.

Ssangokru: Cho Jung-hwan's translated novel book cover

The emergence of modern love challenged these traditional norms, allowing individuals to take centre stage in their romantic narratives. The 1920s marked a significant shift towards free love in Joseon, fuelled by the exchange of heartfelt letters. Young lovers, caught in the throes of passion, eagerly penned love letters day and night, eagerly awaiting responses. The popularity of guides on writing love letters soared, with many considering love an essential part of life.

This surge in correspondence also played a crucial role in developing the postal system, which saw a dramatic increase in letter exchanges from just 137 in its early days to an astonishing 70 million by 1925. However, the era also witnessed tragic consequences, as the number of suicides linked to unrequited love rose sharply, capturing public attention and making headlines, especially when involving well-known figures like Yun Sim-deok and Kim Woo-jin.

Why did stars and rich people throw themselves into the sea?

The protagonists of an impossible love story, Woojin Kim and Sim-deok Yoon (right). The two ended their lives by throwing themselves into the Genkai Sea together.

At 4 a.m. on August 4, 1926, the Tokuju Maru, a ferry departing from Shimonoseki, Japan, was en route to Busan, navigating past Tsushima Island. A porter on duty noticed that the door to first-class cabin number 3 was ajar, raising his suspicions about a potential passenger wandering on deck at such an early hour. Upon entering the cabin to investigate, he discovered a letter resting atop a bag, addressed to "Po-i," which prompted him to open it.

The contents of the letter expressed an apology and a request for the will to be mailed to a registered address. Accompanying the note was a 5-won bill, seemingly a gift, alongside a suicide note indicating a desire to return home. Alarmed by the implications, the porter rushed to inform the captain, declaring an emergency. The ferry was halted, and a search ensued both inside and outside the vessel, yet no sign of the passenger from cabin number 3 could be found. It appeared she had likely taken her own life, though the exact time and location of the act remained unknown.

The cabin was left with a woman's wallet, a man's gold watch, 160 won in cash, and various personal items. To ascertain the identity of the missing passenger, the captain referred to the passenger list. The records indicated two individuals: Kim Su-san, a 30-year-old male from Bukgyo-dong, Mokpo, and Yoon Su-seon, a 30-year-old female residing at 73 Iljeong-mok, Seodaemun-jeong, Gyeongseong.

Upon the Tokuju Maru's arrival in Busan, the captain promptly notified the authorities regarding the incident. The identities of the two individuals involved were quickly uncovered. The male was identified as Kim Woo-jin (김우진;金祐鎭, 1897-1926), the eldest son of the affluent Kim Seong-gyu from Mokpo, recognized for his contributions as a playwright and theatre critic. He completed his studies in the English Department at Waseda University in Japan in 1924 and subsequently took on the role of president at Sangseong Partnership Company, which oversaw the family's assets. In line with societal norms of the era, he married at a young age and had a son and a daughter.

The female involved was none other than Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕; 尹心悳, 1897-1926), celebrated as the premier soprano of Joseon. Hailing from Pyongyang, she graduated from the education department of Gyeongseong Girls’ High School and was chosen as a government-sponsored student to study at the Tokyo Music School, returning in 1923. Her exceptional talent as a vocalist garnered significant attention, leading to television appearances and album recordings that solidified her status as a prominent singer. Her life and career were closely followed by the public, making her a notable figure of her time.

The incident in the Genkai Sea quickly captured global attention, as the media eagerly reported on the scandal involving prominent figures. The intersection of celebrity and wealth consistently draws public fascination, particularly given that the man was married. This event marked a historical moment as it was the first recorded instance of a Korean committing suicide on a ferry due to romantic despair. By August 5, major newspapers, including [Maeil Shinbo], extensively covered the story, sustaining public interest. The release of Yun Sim-deok’s album by the Nitto Gramophone Company of Japan on August 29 further amplified the media frenzy surrounding the affair.

The intrigue surrounding the affair between Yun Sim-deok and Kim Woo-jin captivated public interest. Media narratives suggested a romantic connection between the two, yet the complexities of their situation were underscored by Kim's status as a married man with familial responsibilities. Their tragic decision to end their lives together reflected a profound sense of despair, complicating the notion of their relationship, which, while classified as an affair, was deeply influenced by the societal norms of their time.

The term "new women" referred to those who had received modern education, both locally and abroad, and who often found themselves in social circles with married men like Kim Woo-jin. During this period, early marriage was prevalent, with many young men marrying before pursuing further education abroad. Reports indicated that a significant portion of male high school students were already wed, leaving their families behind to continue their studies. As these men matured, their perspectives often shifted, leading them to question the marriages arranged by their parents and seek relationships with new women.

The case of Chang-sun illustrates the societal pressures of the time. At just fifteen, he was compelled to marry under traditional customs, a decision he accepted without question due to his youth. However, as he progressed through his education, his understanding of love and relationships evolved, prompting him to reject the notion of his marriage, which he perceived as devoid of affection or mutual understanding. This transformation highlights the broader cultural shifts occurring in the 1920s, as individuals began to challenge established norms regarding marriage and personal agency.

A young married man with a wife and children meets a new woman, an 'educated woman'

Yun Sim-deok's posthumous album [Ode to Death].

Park Jun-pyo, a prominent novelist of the 1920s and 1930s, explores the psychological turmoil of a young married man enamoured with another woman in his 1924 novel, *Fate*. The protagonist, Chang-soon, departs from his hometown to pursue a degree in Literature at Gyeongseong University, where he cultivates modern ideals. He rejects the arranged marriage to Jeong-hee, as dictated by his parents, and instead aspires to a romantic relationship with Yeong-sook, an English literature student. Upon his return home after graduation, Chang-soon grapples with the desire to leave behind the constraints of traditional marriage for a progressive family life with Yeong-sook, yet the prospect of divorce looms as a source of profound distress.

The internal conflict Chang-soon faces is exacerbated by societal expectations and familial opposition. He anticipates fierce resistance from both his family and in-laws, particularly given that his wife has borne him a child. The thought of the ensuing chaos fills him with dread, as he foresees the scorn and judgment from a society steeped in ignorance. This emotional burden weighs heavily on him, leading to feelings of guilt and sorrow for both his wife, who remains unaware of his true sentiments, and the innocent child who is oblivious to the turmoil surrounding their family.

The original novels typically mirrored the prevailing values and preferences of society. In Park Jun-pyo's work, [Fate], the protagonist ultimately envisions a life of liberated love but grapples with the weight of divorce, ultimately returning to the family awaiting him. This conclusion resonates with the sentiments of the public. Conversely, those who sought to dissolve early marriages in favour of a new romantic partner faced significant societal backlash, as such choices were met with considerable disapproval.

The concerns of Kim Woo-jin and Yun Sim-deok may have stemmed from this societal context. The name 'Su-san' (水山) found on the passenger list of the Tokuju-maru was a pseudonym for Kim Woo-jin, while 'Su-seon' (水仙) was a term he affectionately used for Yun Sim-deok, indicating her closeness to him. Their relationship began in 1921 during their studies in Tokyo, where they became acquainted through a theatre company formed by the Japanese students' association, with Kim Woo-jin directing and Yun Sim-deok performing vocal solos.

The tour conducted by the Dongwoohoe throughout Joseon proved to be highly successful, spanning 14 regions over a period of 20 days. The troupe received enthusiastic receptions at each location, with their performances of plays and lectures garnering positive feedback. Notably, Yun Sim-deok's solo performance stood out, capturing significant attention. Anticipation for her return to Korea as a trained female vocalist increased, reflecting a growing global interest in her artistry.

Kim Woo-jin developed feelings for a female peer of his age, characterized by his composed and gentle demeanour. In contrast, Yoon Sim-deok's vivacious and generous nature earned her the affectionate nickname 'Wal-nyeo.' She frequently visited Kim Woo-jin's boarding house in Tokyo, engaging in discussions about music and literature while sharing profound personal narratives. This exchange fostered a deep bond of trust and affection between them, transcending the conventional boundaries of a mere romantic affair.

In the summer of 1922, Yun Sim-deok completed her studies at the Tokyo Music School and began to earnestly pursue a career as a vocalist. The journey of pioneers is often fraught with challenges, particularly in the realm of vocal music, which was not yet widely recognized in Joseon. The prospects of sustaining a livelihood as a soprano were bleak. To support her in this formidable endeavour, Kim Woo-jin (김우진) extended an invitation to Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕) while she was in her hometown of Pyongyang. He was vacationing in Mokpo and proposed that she come to perform at a family concert.

The invitation from Kim Woo-jin included train tickets for Yun Sim-deok and her two younger siblings. Her sister, Yun Seong-deok, was studying piano at Ewha Haktang, while her brother, Yun Gi-seong, was pursuing vocal music at Yonhui College. Although the prospect of performing might have felt overwhelming, the familial context of the concert alleviated some of her anxiety. Accepting the invitation, Yun Sim-deok travelled to the residence of Mokpo's wealthiest individual, where she showcased both Western and vocal music. During this visit, she also had the opportunity to meet Kim Woo-jin's family, including his parents, siblings, wife, and children.

A perverse interest in new and unfamiliar stars

Photo 1 - Yun Sim-deok (front row, right, wearing white) during her time at Ueno Music School in Tokyo. Photo 2 – What Ueno Music School looks like now.

Yun Sim-deok returned to her studies in vocal music for an additional year before making her way back to Korea in May 1923, marking the beginning of her journey as a soprano. At that time, the landscape of female vocalists in Joseon was sparse, particularly following the departure of Im Bae-se to the United States. The concept of a soprano was largely unfamiliar to the public, resulting in limited recognition and audiences for her performances. Initially, she took on a part-time lecturing role at Gyeongseong Girls’ High School, biding her time for the opportunity to perform on a concert stage.

An opportunity soon presented itself, leading to Yun Sim-deok's debut on June 26 at the third anniversary concert of the Dong-A Women's Association, thus launching her career as a soprano. While Im Bae-se was noted for her "voice like a cuckoo," Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕) captivated audiences with her unique sound, described as "the sound of beads rolling on a jade tray." Her popularity surged, and she became a frequent performer in the Gyeongseong area, gracing the stage three to four times a month. She received accolades such as "a first-class vocalist who intoxicates audiences" and was celebrated as "Joseon's best vocal group."

Despite the nature of the event being a concert, the compensation she received was minimal. Yun Sim-deok's financial circumstances were deteriorating, particularly after her parents relocated from Pyongyang to Gyeongseong in early 1924, merging their household with hers. This shift placed the burden of supporting her family, including her younger siblings, squarely on her shoulders. Her earnings from performances were insufficient for this responsibility, prompting her to seek additional income through private tutoring, yet the demands proved overwhelming.

Compounding her struggles was the negative scrutiny she faced from the public. Critics targeted her vibrant demeanour and physical appearance, expressing discomfort with her tall and slender figure. As a figure of novelty, Yun Sim-deok encountered resistance from a society that often recoils from the unfamiliar. With her rising fame came an increase in gossip and personal attacks, illustrating the paradox of public admiration intertwined with harsh judgment.

Yun Sim-deok's narrative of romantic freedom soon faced significant scrutiny. Her involvement with composer Hong Nan-pa, the rejection of musician Chae Dong-seon's affections, and the tragic demise of writer Park Jeong-sik due to unrequited love fuelled a torrent of gossip. In an era when even unfounded rumours were readily disseminated by the press, the escalating scandal tarnished the public perception of female vocalists, marking the onset of a societal witch hunt against them.

Amidst the turmoil, Kim Woo-jin emerged as a source of solace for Yun Sim-deok. A graduate of Waseda University’s English Literature Department in the summer of 1924, he returned to his hometown of Mokpo with aspirations to transcend traditional literature and establish Western modern drama in Joseon. However, his ambitions were met with resistance from his father, Kim Seong-gyu (김성규) , a prominent figure who had held various magistrate positions and amassed considerable wealth, expecting his son to inherit the family legacy.

Conforming to his parents' expectations, Kim Woo-jin assumed the presidency of Sangseong Partnership Company, which managed the family's assets. While others may have envied his position, he found it stifling. His wife, the daughter of a Confucian scholar, struggled to comprehend his desire to abandon the family business for a career in theatre, leaving him increasingly isolated. This emotional distance intensified his yearning for Yun Sim-deok, as their relationship flourished amidst the challenges they faced, rooted in a shared artistic vision and a mutual rejection of societal constraints.

Art and love served as a revitalizing force in their otherwise desolate lives, yet they remained powerless against the rigid traditions of Joseon, a society deeply entrenched in its customs, particularly regarding foreigners. The more they endeavoured to resist external influences, the more they found themselves ensnared by the harsh realities that plagued the early proponents of modern art, who faced relentless challenges from all directions.

In early 1925, it was rumoured that Yun Sim-deok had become the mistress of the affluent Lee Yong-mun (이용문) from Gyeongseong. Her visits to his residence, ostensibly for financial assistance to support her brother Yun Gi-seong's (윤기성) education in the United States, led to scandalous gossip. The rumours proliferated rapidly, with the elite mocking her, claiming she masqueraded as an artist while compromising her integrity for monetary gain. They suggested that wealth blurred the lines between a wife and a concubine, reducing her to a mere servant who performed for the entertainment of wealthy patrons.

Critics condemned Yun's recent behaviour, asserting that regardless of one's profession—be it artist, entrepreneur, or homemaker—one should uphold a respectable image. They urged her to embrace a virtuous life, especially with whispers of her potential departure abroad. The sentiment expressed in the publication 'On the Yun Sim-deok Incident' in March 1925 reflected a broader societal expectation that her artistic pursuits should not come at the cost of her dignity and reputation.

The rain shower is currently best avoided. Yun Sim-deok, wrongfully accused of witchcraft, embarked on a solitary journey to Harbin, where Pastor Bae Hyeong-sik, a figure she had admired since childhood, was engaged in missionary work and the independence movement. For six months, she severed all ties and lived in seclusion at Pastor Bae’s residence. It was only upon receiving a telegram informing her of her older sister Yun Sim-seong’s husband’s death that she decided to return to Gyeongseong.

Resuming her activities as a vocalist proved challenging. Yun Sim-deok participated in a radio broadcast being trailed by the Post Office of the Government-General, where she sang, recited poetry, and hosted segments, despite the fact that Korea's first Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station had yet to officially launch. Additionally, she received an invitation to record a gramophone record featuring popular songs. Setting aside her pride as a vocalist trained abroad with government support, Yun Sim-deok embraced the role of a popular singer, a position that had previously been regarded with disdain.

Hurt by the scandal, he tried to become a stage actor

The Genkai Sea as seen from Nagoya Castle, Japan.

During the early 20th century, gisaeng were prominent figures in the entertainment industry, engaging in television appearances and album recordings. The establishment of the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station in February 1927 marked a significant development, as it initially employed around 100 gisaengs, thereby laying a crucial foundation for the broadcasting landscape. The Japan Gramophone Company released the first album featuring popular songs in 1925, with gisaengs like Kim San-wol (김산월) and Do Wol-saek (도월색) traveling to Japan to record notable tracks such as “This Windy World,” “Sided Bangcho,” and “Jang Han-mong-ga.” However, some gisaengs resisted the allure of fame, expressing their reluctance to participate in what they perceived as a demeaning spectacle.

The cultural landscape underwent a radical shift in 1926 when Yun Sim-deok joined the Towolhoe Theatre Company as an actress, following a suggestion from Kim Woo-jin. His critique, influenced by Strindberg, posited that expressionism aptly captured the dire social realities of Joseon, advocating for a new theatrical movement focused on smaller venues. By aligning herself with the Towolhoe Theatre Company, which championed modern theatre, Yun Sim-deok aimed to contribute to the evolution of Joseon’s artistic expression through innovative performances that resonated with contemporary societal issues.

Despite facing vehement opposition from her family, who viewed acting as a disreputable profession, Yun Sim-deok remained resolute in her aspirations. She left her home and took refuge in a Japanese inn located in Samjeong-mok, Hwanggeumjeong (Euljiro), where she dedicated herself to honing her acting skills. In a statement to the press, she described her journey as "a bold step to become something in a corner of the newly built Joseon Art Hall with all her might," reflecting her commitment to pursuing her artistic ambitions despite societal constraints.

The actress faced significant challenges throughout her career. The adaptation of the American film "East Road," titled "Dongdo," failed to resonate with audiences, primarily due to Yun Sim-deok's insufficient acting abilities. Although her vocal talent was evident in the opera "Carmen," the production struggled to gain popularity, as it overly depended on her performance. Additionally, the Towolhoe, which sought commercial success, encountered internal conflicts that ultimately led to its disbandment shortly after its release.

The disappointment of her ambitious endeavours, which included sacrificing her familial ties, plunged her into a state of despair. After achieving fame as a singer, she faced renewed criticism stemming from her unsuccessful theatrical pursuits. Yoon Sim-deok shared her anguish with Kim Woo-jin, who felt a profound sense of helplessness and guilt for her suffering, stemming from his conventional advice. This overwhelming burden of responsibility and self-reproach culminated in a tragic decision, as reflected in Kim Woo-jin’s poignant final poem.

Life running through the vast wilderness… 'Praise of Death' syndrome

The paradox of human sentiment is evident in the way individuals often express disdain for the living, only to venerate them posthumously, as if anticipating a resurrection. This phenomenon was notably illustrated in the Genkai-tan Jeongsa incident, where public criticism of Yun Sim-deok ultimately contributed to her demise, yet the same public later mourned her loss and celebrated her legacy through music.

On July 17, 1926, Yun Sim-deok departed from Gyeongseong en route to Osaka, where she intended to record an album with the Nitto Gramophone Company. Accompanied by her younger sister, Yun Seong-deok, who was preparing for studies in the United States, they swiftly progressed through the recording sessions. Upon completion, Yun Sim-deok reached out to Kim Woo-jin in Tokyo via telegram, inviting him to join her in Osaka, marking a moment where both individuals appeared to be reconciling their lives.

Kim Woo-jincompleted his play 'Wild Pig,' inspired by Donghak, after finishing 'The Disillusionment of Poet Du-deok' and 'The Shipwreck.' He had previously composed a will intended for his wife. Meanwhile, Yun Sim-deok crafted the lyrics for 'Hymn of Death,' set to Ivanovich's instrumental music. Despite the president of Nitto Records expressing concerns about the song's sentimental nature, additional recording took place at her persistent request. It is likely that Yun Sim-deok intended 'Hymn of Death' as a form of farewell.

The lyrics reflect a profound existential inquiry: "Life running through the vast wilderness / What are you looking for? / No matter this world or that, this whole life / I hate money, fame, and love." This introspective sentiment underscores the emotional weight of her work, suggesting a deeper commentary on the human condition and societal values.

On August 4, 1926, the Genkai Sea incident captured significant media attention, leading to the release of Yun Sim-deok's posthumous album on August 29. The timing was remarkable, as the album, titled [Ode to Death], resonated with the dramatic events surrounding it, resulting in sales of 100,000 copies—an unprecedented figure at the time. This phenomenon contributed to the establishment of a domestic record market, with phonographs selling rapidly despite their high cost, prompting the opening of stores by Viktor Records and Columbia in Seoul the following year.

The enduring legacy of Yun Sim-deok and Kim Woo-jin remains significant, even as time progresses. Years later, reports surfaced of a sighting of the pair in Rome, prompting Kim Woo-jin’s family to seek validation from the Governor-General regarding the credibility of these claims. In contrast, Yun Sim-deok’s family exhibited a somewhat different response, as articulated by her younger sister, Yun Seong-deok, who was abroad in the United States via Japan during the events in question.

Yun Seong-deok asserted that her family had never declared her sister deceased, attributing such notions to societal gossip. She expressed confusion over the preoccupation with the living or the dead, emphasizing that the judgments of Joseon society often oscillated between praise and criticism of others. This perspective highlights the societal tendency to speculate on the fates of individuals, particularly those in the public eye.

The accounts of sightings in Rome may reflect a romanticized narrative rather than reality, suggesting that Yun Sim-deok (윤심덕) and Kim Woo-jin (김우진) may have perished in the Genkai Sea. While their love was genuine, it was their shared artistic vision that ultimately led to their tragic end. The cultural context of 1926, marked by Yun Sim-deok’s poignant song "Ode to Death" and the screening of Na Un-gyu’s film "Arirang," illustrates the intersection of modernity and popular art in Korea, underscoring the emotional turmoil experienced by these two figures in the realm of modern art.

The next episode will explore the continuation of Yun Sim-deok's narrative, focusing on the events following her death and the impact of her music. Stay tuned for its upcoming release.

[cosmosbeelover]

The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 2/?

The evolution of Korean female soloists in the early 20th century is a fascinating narrative, particularly against the backdrop of Japanese occupation. During this tumultuous period, several remarkable artists emerged, carving out their identities and gaining recognition despite the challenges they faced. However, the historical documentation of these pioneering women is often limited, as they were active nearly a century ago, before the Korean War, leading to a significant gap in available records. Their contributions, though sometimes overshadowed by the era's struggles, remain a vital part of Korea's cultural heritage.

Jeon Hae-nam (전혜남)

The lack of information regarding Jeon Hae-nam, the wife of the esteemed veteran dancer Kang Yun-bok (강윤복) from the 'Joseon Akgeuk Troupe,' is both disheartening and perplexing. Despite her significant contributions as a pioneer in Korean tap dancing and her association with a prominent figure who transformed the performing arts landscape, she remains largely obscure. In contrast, other artists, even those who have faded from public recognition or were not particularly renowned, often have a considerable amount of information available about them. This disparity highlights the unfortunate reality that Jeon Hae-nam's legacy is not adequately documented, leaving her remarkable achievements underappreciated and largely unknown. This gap in historical recognition is one of the driving forces behind my efforts to shed light on such artists. I am passionate about encouraging others who share my love for Korean music to explore and appreciate the works of these talented individuals who made their mark in the 20th century. By bringing attention to their contributions, I hope to foster a deeper understanding and appreciation for the rich cultural heritage they represent.

Jeon Hae-nam who was married to Kang Yun-bok, the last member of the Joseon Music Troupe (Photo = Park Sung-seo, popular music critic)

Jeon Hae-nam, a prominent figure in the realm of dance, was born in Pyongyang in 1924 and relocated to Seoul during her childhood, where she spent her formative years. Her journey into the world of performing arts began at Sookmyung Girls' High School (숙명여자고등학교;淑明女子高等學校), where she encountered an advertisement for the inaugural class of the Oke Music and Dance Research Institute. After successfully applying and being selected for an interview, she demonstrated exceptional talent in dance, frequently sharing the stage with fellow student Ju-ri. Her artistic endeavours extended beyond the classroom, as she participated in international performances with the Joseon Music Troupe across Japan, China, and Manchuria.

Kang Yun-bok (back row, third from left) and Jeon Hae-nam (front row, far right), after finishing a performance in Okinawa during the US 8th Army Show. (Photo = Park Sung-seo, popular music critic)

Following the passing of Lee Cheol (이철), the leader of the Joseon Music Troupe, Jeon Hae-nam remained committed to the troupe's activities until Korea's liberation in 1945. In the aftermath of this pivotal moment, she took on a significant role as a lead dancer in the newly established Joseon Akgeuk Troupe and later in the Rose Orchestra. Additionally, she contributed her expertise in choreography and dance to the KPK Orchestra, which was directed by Kim Hae-song (김해송), further solidifying her influence in the performing arts landscape of the time.

I previously discussed the Joseon music troupe in Part 5 of 'The History of Korean Male Groups'.

Kang Yun-bok and Jeon Hae-nam (Photo = Park Sung-seo, popular music critic)

In the 1950s, Jeon Hae-nam became a vital member of the 'Beni Kim Show,' associated with the US 8th Army show group Hwayang, and performed at various US military installations in Okinawa, Japan. Her artistic contributions continued during the Vietnam War, where she participated in the 'Vietnam Soldier Comfort Performance.' Later in her career, she served as a choreographer and dance instructor at KBS before her retirement. Kang Yun-bok (real name Kang Yun-deok) was married to the modern dance pioneer Jeon Hae-nam (1929-2011, birth name Park Eung-cheon (박응천)), and together they led the 'Jeon Hae-nam Dance Company.' Park Sung-seo (박성서), a noted music critic, recognized her dedication to the evolution of dance in Korea, highlighting her role as the last surviving member of the Joseon Musical Troupe and her collaborative efforts with her husband to transform the nation's performing arts. She is survived by her son Park Jae-bin and her daughters Dan-hee, Jin-hee, and Hyeon-hee.

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The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 1/?

The inaugural episode of 'The History of Korean Female Soloists from the 20th Century' is now underway, focusing on renowned Korean artists who gained prominence during the early 20th century amid Japanese occupation.

The available information on these artists varies significantly, as they were active nearly a century ago, prior to the Korean War, which contributed to the loss or scarcity of historical records.

Kim So Hee (김소희;金素姬)

In Part 4 of 'The History of Korean Male Groups,' I made a brief reference to Kim So-hee, who was associated with the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station (JODK) (경성방송국). Since I have previously discussed this broadcasting station, I will not elaborate extensively but will provide a concise overview here.

Kim So-hee (김소희; 金素姬), originally named Kim Soon-ok (김순옥; 金順玉), was born on December 1, 1917, in Gochang-gun, Jeollabuk-do, during the era of Japanese colonial rule. She gained immense recognition as a distinguished pansori vocalist, earning the title of national singer and being designated as a national intangible cultural asset. Under her pen name, Man-jeong (만정; 晩汀), she was actively involved in the Joseon Vocal Music Research Association and the Hwarang Changgeuk Troupe, ultimately achieving legendary status as a significant cultural figure of her time.

At the age of twelve, she began her vocal training with the renowned singer Song Man-gap (宋萬甲), accompanied by her father, Kim Bong-ho (김봉호) and also learned traditional songs and sijo (時調) from Jeon Gye-mun (全桂文). Following her graduation from Heungdeok Public Elementary School, she developed a deep appreciation for "Chuwolmanjeong" (秋月滿庭) by Lee Hwa-jung-seon (李花中仙) during her time at Jeonnam Girls' High School while staying with her older sister in Gwangju, which led her to enroll in Song Man-gap's school in 1929. In the late 1920s, while serving as a boy gisaeng (童妓) within the Joseon Gwonbeon (朝鮮券番), she acquired knowledge of female vocal styles and lyrics, ultimately gaining recognition as a prominent girl singer. Her performances were featured on the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station (경성방송국; 京城放送局), and she recorded her work for an album.

In the 1930s, she acquired knowledge of the initial segment of the five Madang of pansori and engaged in recording and broadcasting activities. Her tenure at the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station spanned from 1927 to 1942, during which she performed a variety of pieces, including "Gangsanpungwol" (江山風月),"Gyerak" (界樂), and numerous folk songs such as "Yukjabaeki" and "Chunhyangga." Kim So-hee made her debut on the station on December 29, 1931, where she showcased the nundae sections of "Sugungga," "Simcheongga," "Jeokbyeokga," and "Chunhyangga." Each broadcast featured her renditions of short songs like "Gangsangpungwol," "Geongonga" (乾坤歌), and "Jangbuga" (丈夫歌). Throughout the Japanese colonial era, she recorded a total of 54 albums with various record labels, including four with Columbia, thirty with Orkeh, and twenty with Vikta.

English - After recording the Pansori Chunhyangga album (Victor Records, Seoul) in 1935. From left, Han Seong-jun, Im Bang-ul, Lee Hwa-jung, Jeong Jeong-ryeol, Park Nok-ju, and Kim So-hee (18 years old). Korean - 1935년 판소리 춘향가 음반 (빅터 레코드, 서울) 을 취입한 후의 모습. 왼쪽부터 한성준, 임방울, 이화중선, 정정렬, 박녹주, 김소희(18세).

Life and Career

Kim So-hee's entry into the art world began after her graduation from Gwangju Girls’ High School, now known as Jeonnam Girls’ High School  (全南女子高等學校). At the age of 13, she was deeply moved by a performance of 'Lee Hwa-jung and Her Party' at a tent theatre. A connection through her maternal grandmother's adopted daughter's husband, who was affiliated with the police, led her mother to meet Mr. Song Man-gap. During this meeting, she performed a line from 'Simcheongga,' and later, in her 50s and 60s, she recorded a complete rendition of 'Simcheongga,' titled 'Chuwolmanjeong (秋月晩汀),' which highlighted her artistic prowess. Upon hearing the emotionally charged melody that began with ‘Chuewol is full of emotion, reflected on the coral curtain, and the geese in the clear sky fly high under the moon, tturu…’, Master Song Man-gap was so moved that he knelt in admiration.

She decided to leave school to focus on her singing career under the guidance of Song Man-gap. Within just six months of training, she made her stage debut as ‘Lee Doryeong’ at a disciple recital and subsequently performed in 'Lee Hwa-jung and her party' across various locations, including Busan and Mokpo. Additionally, she studied seungmu and geommu with Jeong Seong-rin in Jeonju, learned lyrics and songs from Jeon Gye-mun, and trained in yanggeum with Yu Sun-seok in Jeongeup, astonishing her teacher by mastering the intricate details of ‘Yeongsanhoesang’ in merely ten days.

A photo of the famous singer Kim So-hee while she was still alive. She was praised as a 'sound sent from heaven'.

At the age of 14, she entered the inaugural Pansori Master Singer Competition in Namwon, securing first place among approximately 80 participants and earning the title of 'baby master singer.' The silver spoons awarded to her as a prize are now preserved by her daughter, Professor Park Yun-cho.

In the winter of 1931, Kim So-hee moved to Seoul to pursue her singing studies more seriously, residing at her aunt's home in Gwancheol-dong. There, she took an examination with the renowned master Han Seong-jun, who was introduced to her by Song Man-gap. During this period, she learned "Chunhyangga" from Jeong Jeong-ryeol while also making television appearances, performing, and recording.

Around this time, she adopted the stage name Kim So-hee, having been born Kim Ok-hee. She began her pansori training at 15 under Song Man-gap, concentrating on "Simcheongga" and "Heungboga." By the age of 18, her repertoire had grown to include "Chunhyangga" and "Sugungga," which she studied under Jeong Jeong-ryeol. At 22, she advanced her education with Park Dong-sil at Jishilchodang in Nammyeon, with support from Park Seok-gi. Throughout her thirties, Kim So-hee continued to enhance her vocal abilities with esteemed instructors such as Jeong Eung-min, Jeong Gwon-jin, Park Rok-ju, Kim Yeo-ran, and Park Bong-sul

At the age of 16, she expanded her musical education by studying songs and sijo under Jeon Gye-mun (1872-1940) and learned to play the geomungo and yanggeum from Kim Yong-geon. By 17, she had begun her dance training with Jeong Gyeong-rin and subsequently pursued studies in calligraphy and Chinese classics. Notable figures such as An Hyang-ryeon (1944-1981), Han Nong-seon (1934-2002), and several others became her disciples.

Shortly after starting her vocal training with Song Man-gap, she was introduced to Lee Hwa-jung-seon (李花中仙) (1899-1943), who recognized her talent and featured her in a performance at Gwangju Theater that same evening. This pivotal moment led to her joining Lee Hwa-jung-seon's Hyupryulsa, and she achieved first place in the Namwon Master Singer Competition the following year. By 18, she recorded "Simcheongga" and "Jeokbyeokga" for Oke Records and Columbia Records, establishing herself as a prominent young singer, and at 20, she collaborated with other notable artists to record the complete collection of Chunhyangjeon for Big Records.

Kim So-hee (김소희) Published by Lee Jeong-gyu. ‘Korean National Treasure-level National Singers, Master Singers, Master Drums, and Master Geum Photographs and Poetry Collection’. Suncheon Photo Printing Company.

In February 1936, the establishment of Changgeukjwa as a branch of the Joseon Vocal Music Research Association marked a significant development in her career, as she engaged in changgeuk activities alongside Kang Tae-hong, Kim Se-jun, and Kim Yeon-su. She participated in the opera Bae Bi-jang-jeon (裵裨將傳), performed by the Joseon Vocal Music Research Society from February 9-11, 1936, and took part in a flood relief music competition on August 28-29, 1936. Additionally, she showcased her talents in a renowned singer competition at the Gwangju Theatre on October 16-17, 1938, further solidifying her status in the musical landscape of the time.

On June 11, 1937, she participated in the complete recording of Chunhyang-jeon by the Viktor Gramophone Company, alongside several significant pansori pieces, including the brief song "Gangsangpungwol," which featured janggu accompaniment by Han Seong-jun and was later recorded on Columbia Records in Japan. Collaborations with Kim Deok-jin (haegeum), Sim Sang-geon (gayageum), and Jeong Hae-si (tungso) resulted in numerous songs, including "Godangsang" (高堂上), which were released on Japanese Victa records. Additional recordings, such as "Gisaengjeomgo" (妓生點考), were made with Obi-chui, Shin Sook, and Lee Hwa-jung-seon for Oke records, while "Orijeongibyeol" (五里亭離別) from Chunhyangjeon appeared on the Gunsohaehoe record. She was appointed as a director during the 5th regular general meeting of the Joseon Vocal Music Research Association on May 23, 1938.

On December 24, 1940, she performed at the inaugural show of the Hwarang Changgeuk Troupe, founded by Park Seok-gi at the Jeil Theater, alongside Cho Sang-seon, Han Ju-hwan, and Kim Yeo-ran in productions of Chunhyangjeon, the historical drama "The Bell Sound of Bongdeoksa Temple," and Kim Won-hak's original Changgeuk "Paldamchunmong." Following Korea's liberation in early 1948, she appeared with Seong Won-mok, Gong Gi-nam, and Kim Deuk-su in the performance of "Goguryeo's Hon (魂)," staged by Park Dong-sil, the head of the Gukgeuk Association established in early 1948.

English - Ensemble of Seong Geum-ryeon (gayageum), Ji Yeong-hee (haegeum), Kim So-hee (yanggeum), and Kim Yun-deok (geomungo) Korean - 성금련(가야금)·지영희(해금)·김소희(양금)·김윤덕(거문고)의 합주

The Korean Traditional Music Women's Association was founded on September 1, 1948, with significant contributions from President Park Nok-ju, Vice-Presidents Kim Yeon-su and Im Yu-aeng, General Affairs Manager Jo Yu-saek, and members including Park Gwi-hee, Han Yeong-sook, and Kim Nong-ju. Their first performance showcased the original Changgeuk "Okjunghwa" (獄中花) at Sigonggwan in October of the same year, followed by "Sunshine and Moonshine," composed by Kim A-bu, which premiered in February 1949. During the Korean War in 1950, she performed "Gayageum," created by Yu Chi-jin, with the Haetnim Gukgeuk Troupe at the Busan Theater, alongside notable performers such as Park Gwi-hee, Jo Nong-wol, and Kang Nam-wol. In 1955, she established the Korean Folk Arts Academy, played a pivotal role in founding the National Gugak Arts School, and served as a pansori instructor from its inception.

A scene from a class at a disciple's studio. Teacher Kim So-hee is teaching pansori to her young students. The person with her back turned is her daughter Park Yun-cho.

At the age of 32, she was instrumental in the establishment of the Women’s Traditional Music Association while actively performing with the Joseon Vocal Music Research Association. Her notable contributions during this period included works such as 〈Okjunghwa〉 and 〈Haetnimdalnim〉. By the age of 38, Kim So-hee, a dedicated advocate for changgeuk, women’s traditional Korean music, and pansori, founded the Folk Arts Institute and became its first director. She maintained a vigorous schedule of performances in traditional Korean music both within the country and abroad, culminating in her receipt of the 4th Gugak Award (Changak Practical Skill Award) from the Gugak Promotion Association in 1959.

In the early 20th century, notable female singers in modern Korean history included Jin Chae-seon, Heo Geum-pa, and Kim Cho-hyang, who were prominent figures in the changgeuk theater. Kang So-chun, recognized as a leading vocalist of Won-gak-sa, also contributed significantly to this era. Lee Hwa-jung-seon is often regarded as a successor to these artists. In contemporary times, the landscape of female singers has expanded to include Kim Nok-ju, Bae Seol-hyang, Shin Geum-hong, and others. Notably, in 1964, Kim So-hee and Park Cho-wol became the first female pansori singers to be recognized as Important Intangible Cultural Properties.

Kim So-hee in her later years.

Kim So-hee's musical journey was marked by her exceptional vocal talent and collaborative spirit. She developed close relationships with fellow musicians, including Park Nok-ju and Oh Bi-chwi, and maintained a lifelong friendship with Park Gwi-hee. Her training encompassed a diverse range of traditional arts, learning pansori from esteemed masters such as Song Man-gap and Jeong Eung-min, while also studying classical dance and various string instruments. Advisor Yang Won-seok emphasized the importance of personal interpretation in music, suggesting that true mastery involves integrating distinct styles rather than merely imitating them.

By 1964, she was recognized as the custodian of Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 5, Pansori Chunhyangga. She served as a practical instructor at the Gugak Arts School, which commenced on March 5, 1960. In the same year, she participated in the inaugural changgeuk Daechunhyangjeon performance alongside Kim Yeon-su and fellow members Park Gwi-hee, Kang Jang-won, and Kang Jong-cheol, organized by the National Gugak Company of Korea to celebrate its establishment. Additionally, in 1962, she performed at the 9th International Festival of Folk Arts in Paris and later toured the United States with the Samcheolli Dance Troupe in 1964. Her accolades include first prize at the Namwon Chunhyang Festival Folk Arts Competition (1931), the 4th National Gugak Award (1959), the World Broadcasting Award (1962), the Literature and Arts Promotion Award (1972), the Order of Civil Merit, Dongbaek Medal (1973), the 1st Korean Traditional Music Award (1982), the Republic of Korea Culture and Arts Award (1984), the Namwon City Arts and Culture Award (1987), the 1st Dongri Grand Prize (1987), and the 1st Bangil British Music Award (1994).

English - Cover of 『Kim So-hee's Chunhyangga (Book: Kim Myeong-hwan)』 1-6Seoul Records. 1995 Korean - 『김소희 춘향가(북 : 김명환)』 1-6 표지서울음반. 1995

The reunion of the royal inspector with Chunhyang, as depicted in the narrative of <Chunhyangga>, alongside the portrayal of the middle class in <Simcheongga>, and the lamentation of the military in <Jeokbyeokga>, showcases the rich tapestry of Korean pansori tradition. Notably, Kim So-hee, a prominent figure in this art form, collaborated with drummer Han Seong-jun to produce significant recordings, including those of "Chunhyangga" and "Simcheongga," which are regarded as masterpieces. In 1964, Kim was honoured as the holder of the Important Intangible Cultural Property for "Chunhyangga," a testament to her exceptional talent. Her rendition of "Chunhyangga" reflects a carefully reconstructed manjeongje, characterized by a naturally gifted voice that is both clear and beautiful. Kim's singing style is marked by elegance and restraint, avoiding excessive emotional extremes while maintaining a delicate approach. Through her training with esteemed teachers, she adeptly synthesized various elements to create a unique interpretation of "Chunhyangga," embodying the distinctive qualities of both eastern and western musical traditions.

Kim So-hee's career spanned from 1929 to 1994, during which she distinguished herself as a master singer and was honored with the title of national singer. Her contributions to the art of pansori are significant, particularly through her establishment of the Manjeongje pansori style, which emphasized elegance and sophistication. She played a pivotal role in advancing traditional Korean music, notably by co-founding the Women’s Traditional Korean Music Club and the National Traditional Music Arts School, now known as the National Traditional Arts Middle and High School. Alongside contemporaries Park Rok-ju and Park Cho-wol (1917-1983), she is recognized as a leading female figure in the evolution of modern pansori.

Married Life

Kim So-hee's artistic development was significantly influenced by her encounter with the contemporary geomungo master, Hyonam Park Seok-gi. Born into affluence in Damyang, Jeollanam-do, Park Seok-gi pursued his education in French Literature at Dongguk University, where he also made his mark in Korean baseball as a player and team leader for the Tokyo International Student Baseball Team. He passed away in 1953 at the age of 54, leaving behind a daughter, Park Yun-cho, who was only nine at the time of his death.

Although Kim So-hee held great respect for Park Seok-gi, their relationship was brief. Park recounted that his father was not a conventional Korean musician; he chose seclusion over collaboration with the Japanese during their occupation, particularly after his aspirations to be a writer were thwarted. In his retreat to his hometown, he embraced the geomungo as a companion and dedicated himself to reviving traditional Korean music, establishing a music academy in Jisil and inviting renowned artists like Park Dong-sil to mentor students. Graduates from this academy, including figures like Kim So-hui, became prominent leaders in the Korean traditional music scene. Today, Park Seok-gi is recognized as a key figure in the revival of Korean traditional music, akin to Dong-ri Shin Jae-hyo, who is celebrated for his contributions to pansori.

Kim So-hee's birthplace at 335 Sapo-ri, Heungdeok-myeon, Gochang-gun, Jeollabuk-do, and her grave at Hwasan-ri, Gochang-eup, Jeollabuk-do.

In 2015, the National Gugak Center commemorated the 70th anniversary of liberation with the production "Thinking of Park Seok-gi," which was dedicated to Park Seok-gi and performed over three days. Park recounted a childhood memory regarding her parents' conflict over her mother's artistic pursuits.

She reflected on her father's opposition to her mother's art sales, which she initially found incomprehensible but later understood as her mother’s necessity to support the family, given her maternal grandfather's inability to provide assistance. Park noted that her mother assumed the role of the eldest child after the early deaths of her brothers. Furthermore, she revealed that her mother rarely mentioned her father, referring to him as "your father" or "teacher," indicating a relationship more akin to that of mentor and mentee than spouses. Throughout her life, Man-jeong (Kim So-hee) prioritized her artistic integrity over financial gain, insisting on receiving only her appearance fee. Park also shared a poignant memory from the year of her mother's passing, during a trip to Gurye, Jeollanam-do, where her mother expressed a desire to live as an ordinary housewife if given another chance, revealing her longing for a fulfilling family life beyond her public persona.

Park Seok-gi (박석기; 朴錫驥)

Unfortunately, there is a scarcity of information regarding Park Seok-gi.

Park Seok-gi, born in 1899 in Okwa, Jeollanam-do, passed away in 1953 at the age of 54, leaving behind a nine-year-old daughter, Park Yun-cho. He graduated from Tokyo Imperial University in Japan but chose to dedicate his life to the arts, studying Geomungo Pungryu and Geomungo Sanjo under Baek Nak-jun, the founder of Geomungo Sanjo, ultimately becoming a master in this traditional music form during the Japanese colonial era.

Park Seok-gi (박석기), father of Park Yoon-cho.

In his hometown, he constructed a thatched cottage where he invited renowned singers and artists to mentor him, while also gathering young music students to impart traditional music knowledge, thereby aiding in the preservation of cultural heritage during a time of anti-Japanese sentiment. During this period, he engaged Park Dong-sil as a pansori instructor, who taught notable students such as Kim So-hee, Han Ae-sun, and Kim Nok-ju, while Park Seok-gi himself took on the role of geomungo instructor. Notably, Han Gap-deuk, recognized as a holder of the geomungo sanjo art and designated as an Important Intangible Cultural Property in 1967, also learned this art form from him.

Filmography and Music

From 1929 to 1994, Kim So-hee produced numerous albums and participated in various films, including First Marriage (1965), The Last Witness (1980), Nanjung Diary (1977), Sea Village (1965), and The Story of Janghwa Hongryeon (1956), among others.

Her Legacy

Kim So-hee, known as Manjeong, stands out among the renowned female singers in the rich 300-year tradition of pansori, often regarded as the 'last legend' of this art form. Her performance of "Departing Ship" at the closing ceremony of the 1988 Seoul Olympics remains etched in the memories of many.

Her performance starts from 1:22:30 – 1:25:00. Even though it might have not been her last performance, being able to watch her perform on a stage in front of hundreds of people must’ve felt somewhat sad but proud at the same time.

Her voice, described as clear and elegant, resonated with the beauty of "the cry of geese on a moonlit autumn night," evoking deep emotions in her audience. While she learned from notable figures like Song Man-gap and Jeong Jeong-ryeol, she uniquely blended their influences to carve her own distinctive style. Professor Choi Dong-hyun from Kunsan National University emphasized her significance, stating that Kim So-hee is always among the first names mentioned in discussions about women's pansori, a testament to her enduring legacy.

Continuing her mother's legacy, her daughter Park Yun-cho (박윤초; 朴倫初) has also made her mark in the field, with notable students including Jang Yeong-chan, Ahn Hyang-yeon, and Kim Dong-ae (金東愛). Kim So-hee participated in the recording of the 5-LP album "Changgeuk Daechunhyangjeon," alongside artists such as Kim Yeon-su, Park Nok-ju, and Park Gwi-hee. She passed away on April 17, 1995, and a memorial concert commemorating her contributions was held at Ho-am Art Hall on April 19, 1997, marking the second anniversary of her death.

Park Yun-cho (박윤초; 朴倫初)

Professor Park Yoon-cho has been attuned to Manjeong’s voice since her childhood, suggesting an innate talent for singing. Her teacher, perhaps mindful of her potential, encouraged her exploration across various artistic disciplines, including dance, gayageum, theatre, and painting, rather than confining her to a singular path as a pansori performer.

In her academic pursuits, Professor Park has studied traditional dance under esteemed cultural figures such as Han Yeong-sook and Lee Mae-bang, while also mastering the gayageum with guidance from Seong Geum-yeon and Ham Dong-jeongwol. Additionally, she has honed her skills in Korean painting with Lee Dang Kim Eun-ho and delved into Chinese classics and calligraphy under the tutelage of Ujeon Shin Ho-yeol alongside her mother.

In 1982, Kim So-hee's daughter Park Yun-cho performed as the lead actress in the opera "Aladdin" in New York, USA.

She occasionally explored pansori, but her mother sternly advised her to abandon it. Subsequently, she immersed herself in the theatrical realm, gaining recognition for her role in "What Will Become?" produced by "Extreme Freedom," which uniquely fused theatre with traditional Korean music. Following a successful European tour from 1978 to 1981, she was cast as the lead in La Mama's Broadway production of Aladdin (The 3 Travelers of Aladin with the Magic Lamp).

In her own words, she described Aladdin as a collaboration among prominent theater companies from the US, UK, and France, where she infused her performance with singing and traditional dance forms such as seungmu and Bongsan mask dance, creating a notable impact. Despite feeling overshadowed by her peers from prestigious institutions like Juilliard, she recognized her unique heritage and the skills she had acquired from esteemed masters as a means to carve her own artistic path. Upon returning from New York, she dedicated herself to furthering her vocal studies. She fondly recalled the emotional connections formed during her 1996 solo pansori concert tour in the Netherlands and Belgium, as well as her participation in UNESCO's 'International Women’s Day' in 1997, where she showcased her cultural heritage. Her mother, while not as demanding as with her students, took pride in her daughter's achievements, particularly at Carnegie Hall, and in her commitment to nurturing young global artists in traditional Korean music workshops in Paris.

Professor Park recounted a revealing incident involving her mother during a reporter's visit. When asked how it felt to hear her daughter perform a well-known song, her mother responded with skepticism, questioning the cost of such an experience and expressing doubt about her daughter's abilities. The following day, the newspaper misrepresented her mother's words, leading to her outrage. In a moment of defense, Professor Park confronted the reporter, wishing her mother’s doubts were unfounded, which only intensified her mother's anger towards the media's ignorance. This incident marked a turning point, as her mother subsequently avoided interactions with reporters.

In 1994, shortly before Man-jeong's passing, she was honored with the 'Artist’s Great Mother Award.' When questioned about her aspirations for her daughter, Man-jeong candidly expressed her desire for her to become a painter. Professor Park reflected on her mother's approach to praise, noting that while she was generous with her students, she reserved her commendations for her daughter. In a poignant moment before her death, her mother acknowledged their bond, stating, "So you are my daughter," a sentiment that continues to resonate deeply with Professor Park.

Professor Park Yoon-cho of Seoul Institute of the Arts and her husband Yang Won-seok, former senior advisor at the Archibald Architecture and Urban Research Institute.

On May 21, during the centennial celebration of Kim So-hee's birth, she passionately delivered the poem "Come Even in My Dreams - Samogok 2."

The verses reflect a profound sense of longing and introspection, as the speaker grapples with feelings of isolation and the passage of time. The imagery evokes a deep connection to maternal wisdom and the inevitability of fate, culminating in a poignant plea for reunion, even in dreams. The poem encapsulates the emotional weight of memory and the enduring bond between mother and child, highlighting the complexities of love and loss.

The following information consists of accounts provided by Kim So-hee's daughter, who recounts the lives of her mother, her father Park Seok-gi, and her own experiences.

“My mother was a lonely woman all her life.” - (“어머니는 평생 외로운 여자였어요”)

This text reflects the cultural and artistic landscape surrounding the renowned master singer Park Yoon-cho. As the daughter of the legendary vocalist Manjeong Kim So-hee (김소희; 金素姬), Park embodies a wealth of artistic talent, excelling in various disciplines including pansori, gayageum byeongchang, and traditional dance. Distancing herself from the superficiality of television appearances, she is committed to deepening her artistic expression while mentoring the next generation. One wonders if her fervour is fuelled by a profound sorrow for her mother, resonating with the spirit of her era, as she shares the intertwined narratives of their lives.

Park Yoon-cho talks about the life of her Mother

Kim So-hee, whose real name is Kim Soon-ok and pen name Man-jeong (晩汀), is a name well-known to those who lived in Korea over the past century. Renowned for her distinctive voice, which was unmatched and emerged from her petite 5-foot stature, she gained prominence as a singer. Born in Gochang, she achieved first place in the Namwon Famous Singer Contest at just 14 years old, having trained for only six months, and quickly became the preferred choice for record labels during the Japanese colonial era.

In addition to her vocal prowess, Kim So-hee excelled in various artistic disciplines, including dance, instrumental music, and calligraphy, as well as in pansori. Revered as the godmother of Korean traditional music, she mentored many students and was recognized as Human Cultural Asset No. 5 in 1964. A masterful representative of Korean music on the global stage, her legacy endures, evidenced by the continued admiration of her students following her passing in 1995.

Manjeong Kim So-hee's daughter, Park Yoon-cho, has also made a name for herself as a prominent singer, following in her mother's footsteps and establishing herself in the realm of Korean traditional music. Park reflects on her mother's artistry, noting that her natural voice resonated deeply, characterized by clarity and beauty, and highlighting the dedication and introspection that contributed to her mother's status as a celebrated singer of the Republic of Korea.

Thank you, my precious 'Mother & Teacher'

Park Yoon-cho, born in 1944, asserts that her vocal abilities have significantly improved over the last two decades, a claim supported by her continued active engagement in her field as of 2015. She reflects on a poignant connection to her late mother, who passed away in 1995, suggesting that her mother’s spirit influences her dreams, often manifesting as gentle smiles coupled with ominous hints. These dreams, where her mother appears adorned in a blue hanbok and requests assistance, evoke feelings of anxiety related to her own physical and professional struggles.

This is the last performance of Kim So-hee. She is performing at the awards ceremony for winning the first Bang Il-young National Music Award on November 28, 1994, a year before she passed away.

Since the fifth grade, Park Yoon-cho has diligently maintained a diary, viewing it as a personal chronicle of her life. When a reporter inquired about sharing these diaries, she responded with skepticism, questioning the rationale behind such a request. She recalls that her earlier grievances about her mother eventually transformed into poetic expressions, highlighting the profound impact of her mother, Manjeong Kim So-hee, who was both a maternal figure and a mentor. Park Yoon-cho reminisces about her mother’s exceptional talent, once praised by the New York Times, and emphasizes the significance of ballim (Dance), in the art of pansori, noting that while her singing may not match her mother’s, her proficiency in ballim surpasses it.

The loneliness of my mother that I learned over time

The existence of a traditional Korean musician is fraught with challenges. It is reported that the musician's mother expressed a desire, prior to her passing, to be reborn as an ordinary woman or a noble lady, rather than endure the difficult life associated with traditional music. This sentiment echoes the harsh realities depicted in films such as "Seopyeonje" (서편제; 西便制), which portrays the lives of itinerant pansori singers in the 1950s, a period marked by significant cultural upheaval due to Japanese and Western influences. The narrative is conveyed through a series of flashbacks, illustrating the struggles faced by these artists.

The complex relationship between Park Yoon-cho and her mother is characterized by both affection and resentment, shaped by their shared experiences. Park Yoon-cho reflects on her mother's life, acknowledging her as a remarkable woman who, despite her talents, lacked love and fulfilment. This realization deepened for Yoon-cho when she experienced the intense love of her own husband, contrasting sharply with her mother's loneliness stemming from her father's indifference.

Park Yoon-cho's father, Park Seok-gi, was a distinguished geomungo sanjo master and the second son of a prosperous family, educated at Tokyo Imperial University. He established a residence in Damyang with the intention of gathering talented individuals from across the nation to impart knowledge of Korean traditional music. His initiative was driven by a strong sense of national identity, emphasizing the importance of preserving Korean cultural heritage in the face of Japanese dominance. This endeavour ultimately led to his meeting with Kim So-hee, who would become his wife, marking the beginning of their intertwined destinies.

Reunion, the war with mother begins

My father, renowned for his intellect and masculine allure, was not particularly affectionate towards my mother, who embodied traditional femininity but struggled to understand love. In time, my mother, enraged by my father's infidelities, abandoned me at the age of two or three to move to Seoul, leaving me in the care of my father.

As a result, I developed a closer bond with my father, who aspired for me to grow into a graceful young woman. He instilled in me the principle of valuing my talents over monetary gain. Tragically, my father passed away from an illness contracted while escaping during the Korean War when I was just ten years old.

At the age of twelve, I had the opportunity to reconnect with my mother, facilitated by my grandmother, who was the youngest sister of Yukdang Choi Nam-seon and had cared for me. Although I sensed my mother's longing for me, I was hesitant to live with her, leading to an awkward dynamic during our meetings. This marked the beginning of a complicated relationship with my mother.

A Mother & Daughter who were completely different from the beginning

The assertion made by her mother regarding Park Yoon-cho—that she would survive even in the harshest conditions—reflects a profound level of trust. While the statement may seem severe, it underscores a belief in Park Yoon-cho's resilience. Nonetheless, the inevitable conflicts that arise between them can be attributed to their fundamentally different personalities.

Their contrasting preferences are evident in their choice of colours; the narrator favours muted tones like gray, while her mother is drawn to vibrant shades such as orange and pink. This divergence extends beyond aesthetics, as the narrator notes the differences in their physical appearances and grooming habits. Although she is her mother's daughter, she identifies more closely with her father's traits, highlighting the complexity of their relationship.

The mother's attempts to shape Park Yoon-cho's upbringing stem from her own concerns and aspirations. She believed that adhering to her values would protect her daughter from the harsh realities of life. In contrast, Park Yoon-cho is determined to forge her own path, vowing to reject the lifestyle her mother exemplified, thus illustrating the tension between inherited expectations and personal identity.

The loneliness of living as a perfect singer

She recalled her mother's saying, "I sing when I'm sad, happy, missing someone, or lonely." Her mother embodied the essence of an entertainer, with the burdens of fame as a renowned singer weighing heavily upon her.

"My mother was unable to avoid the challenges that came with her profession. She had numerous students, and as they matured, some attempted to overshadow her. I recognized this dynamic, but when I brought it to her attention, she reacted with anger, accusing me of jealousy." Due to her mother's celebrity status and their familial tensions, personalized instruction was not feasible. Consequently, Park resorted to secretly recording her mother's singing to learn on her own.

In a performance, teacher Kim So-hee is dancing the dotboegi dance.

"My mother rarely needed to raise her voice, yet she often did so with great intensity, which was overwhelming for me. Her relentless pursuit of perfection may have contributed to her lifelong struggles. In contrast, I found joy in singing. While she may not have projected her voice loudly, many claimed it was a divine gift." Park's reflections were tinged with a sense of regret for the complexities of their relationship.

I didn't know how to untie the knot of Han

Park Yoon-cho reflects on her evolving relationship with her mother, noting that as she matured, their conflicts gradually diminished. This transformation led to a deepening affection that resembled the resilience of grass in a field. Nevertheless, this late realization is tinged with regret, highlighting the complexities of their bond.

She expresses a poignant wish that time could halt, allowing her to hold onto her mother and extend the opportunity for reconciliation. The desire for her mother's peace, however, is fraught with the understanding of the hardships her mother endured, leading to a conflicted sentiment that she feels compelled to suppress, even at the cost of her own well-being.

The relics of teacher Kim So-hee. She received the Geumgwan Order of Cultural Merit in 1995, shortly after her death.

Park Yoon-cho grapples with feelings of guilt for not adequately preparing to say goodbye to her 78-year-old mother. This inability stems from a long-standing emotional turmoil, where years of resentment created a tangled web of love and hatred. She acknowledges that her affection was buried deep within, masked by a harsh demeanour, rooted in a misunderstanding that her mother had usurped her father's love.

20th anniversary without regrets for my mother and me

Park Yoon-cho articulates her complex feelings towards her mother as a challenging enigma to unravel. Despite the passage of time, she endeavoured to address her mother's perceived shortcomings, albeit belatedly. The overwhelming presence of the renowned Kim So-hee added to her fatigue, complicating her emotional landscape.

In the wake of her mother's death a year prior, Park experienced profound regret, which was compounded by conflicts with other prominent artists engaged in similar endeavours. Although she sought to honour her mother’s legacy and fulfil her responsibilities as a daughter, she faced criticism for her efforts, which she found disheartening. Her intentions were rooted in love and duty, yet external judgments clouded her experience.

As the 20th anniversary of her mother's passing approaches in 2015, Park Yoon-cho hopes to navigate this milestone without regrets. Encouraged by the support of those who genuinely cherished her mother, including Teacher Lee Myeong-hee and Ms. Kim Mi-sook, she aims to serve as a bridge to honour her mother's memory. The upcoming commemoration is anticipated to be a significant yet challenging occasion, as she strives to ensure a respectful and meaningful tribute.

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The History of Korean Male Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 2/?

The second episode of 'The History of Korean Male Soloists from the 20th Century' focuses on notable Korean artists who gained recognition in the early 20th century, a time marked by Japanese occupation.

The documentation surrounding these artists is often inconsistent, primarily because their activities took place nearly a century ago, prior to the Korean War, which resulted in the loss or inaccessibility of historical records.

Lee Eun Sang (이은상; 李殷相)

Lee Eun-sang was initially referenced in Part 3 of 'The History of Korean Male Groups' for his contribution as a lyricist for the "Boat Song," which was performed by the Yonhui College Choir and composed by Hyun Je-myeong (현제명; 玄濟明). He also penned the lyrics for "Watermill" and "Jeolumbari," both of which were composed by Hyun Je-myeong as well.

Lee Eun Sang (이은상), born on October 22, 1903, and passing on September 18, 1982, hailed from Jeonju but spent much of his life in Masan, Gyeongnam. He was the second son of Lee Seung-gyu (이승규) and adopted several pen names, with Nosan (노산;鷺山) being the most prominent, alongside Namcheon (남천; 南川), Gangsan Yuin (강산유인; 江山遊人), and Duwooseong (두우성;斗牛星).

As a distinguished South Korean sijo poet, historian, and honorary doctor of literature, Lee Eun Sang produced significant works including the 'Nosan Sahwa Collection,' 'Nosan Sijo Collection,' 'Nosan Poetry Collection,' 'I Want to Go,' 'Night at Seongbulsa Temple,' and 'Climbing the Old Hill.' His contributions to the arts were recognized with several accolades, including the Arts Academy Merit Award, the 5/16 National Award, and honours from the Arts and Culture Division.

Life and Activities

He completed his secondary education at Masan Changshin School (昌信學校), an institution established by his father in 1918, and pursued studies in the liberal arts at Yonhui College (연세대학교; 延世大學校), although he is believed to have left the college in 1923. Between 1925 and 1927, he attended Waseda University (와세다 대학; 早稲田大学) in Japan, where he audited courses in the Department of History.

In 1931, Lee Eun Sang began his academic career as a professor at Ewha Womans College (이화여자대학교; 梨花女子大學校). He later took on leadership roles, including the presidency of Honam Shinmun in 1945, and continued to teach at various institutions such as Cheonggu University, Seoul National University (서울대학교), and Yeungnam University (영남대학교; 嶺南大學校) after 1950. Additionally, he held presidencies in several cultural organizations, including the Korean National Culture Association and the Korean Sijo Writers Association, as well as the Korean Mountaineering Club (한국산악회), which was founded in 1945.

Prior to Korea's liberation, he was an active participant in the National Literature Faction and was arrested during the Joseon Language Society Incident (조선어학회 사건; 朝鮮語學會事件), which involved the Japanese authorities detaining members of the Korean Language Society in 1942. His literary contributions began in the early days of the Joseon Literary World (조선문단) magazine, and despite being imprisoned at Hongwon Police Station and Hamheung Prison, he was released the following year. In 1945, he faced detention at Gwangyang Police Station under a preliminary arrest warrant for thought crimes but was freed following Korea's liberation.

Following his liberation, he produced a substantial body of work across journalism, academia, and historical writing. His explorations of the country resulted in numerous travelogues, and he gained recognition as a researcher of Admiral Yi Sun-sin (이순신; 李舜臣). In 1954, he was elected to the National Academy of Arts and subsequently became the president of the Chungmugong Admiral Yi Sun-sin Memorial Association in 1959. His leadership extended to the National Culture Association and the Ahn Jung-geun (안중근) Admiration Association in 1965, where he dedicated efforts to honour significant national figures. Notably, he contributed to the founding declaration of the Democratic Republican Party in 1963.

He earned both his master's and doctoral degrees in Korean language and literature from Kyunghee University (경희대학교; 慶熙大學校) in 1970, followed by an honorary doctorate in literature from Yonsei University in 1974. That same year, he assumed the role of chairman of the National Council for Total Security and became the lifetime chairman of the Sijo Writers Association. His accolades included being named a lifetime member of the National Academy of Arts in 1978 and serving on the National Advisory Committee on Government Administration in 1981. His contributions to the arts were recognized with several awards, including the National Academy of Arts' Merit Award and the May 16 National Award.

His literary legacy includes popular sijos such as “Gagopa” (가고파), “The Night of Seongbulsa Temple” (성불사의 밤), and “Going Up the Old Hill” (옛동산에 올라), alongside significant publications like “Nosan Sahwajip” (노산사화집), “Nosan Sijojip” (노산시조집), and “Yi Chungmu-gong Chronicles” (이충무공 일대기). Throughout his life, he was committed to the dual pursuits of sijo poetry and fostering national consciousness. In 1982, he was appointed as an advisory member of the State Affairs Advisory Council (Another link about this Council), but he passed away later that year, leaving behind a rich tapestry of cultural contributions.

He additionally composed the lyrics for the commemorative song dedicated to Mr. Kim Gu (김구) and President Park Chung-hee (박정희).

His Work

In 1921, the poem "Blood Tide" was published in the fourth issue of "Ahseong" (아성) under the pseudonym Du Woo-seong (두우성), marking the beginning of his literary career. However, it was not until the establishment of "Chosun Literature" in 1924 that he fully engaged in literary activities. Throughout this magazine, he contributed numerous critiques, essays, and poems, although he largely overlooked traditional national studies and sijo, favouring Western free verse instead. During this period, he produced approximately thirty free verse poems, in stark contrast to just one sijo.

His critical writings from this era include notable titles such as “A Study of Poet Whitman,” “Tennyson’s Four Poems,” and “Lectures on the History of British Poetry,” with significant contributions appearing in "Chosun Literature" and "Dong-A Ilbo." These works reflect the literary landscape of the time and his engagement with Western literary traditions. However, by the latter half of 1926, as discussions surrounding the revival of sijo gained momentum, there was a noticeable shift towards traditional literature and national studies.

Lee Eun Sang (이은상)– Nosanmunseon (노산문선)

Between 1929 and 1930, he published several poems that incorporated folk song rhythms, including “Sae Taryeong” (New Song), “Maehwadong” (Selling Flowers), and “Joseon’s Flower” (Flower of Joseon). In addition to his poetry, he also contributed to the field of criticism with works such as “A Brief Study of Cheongsang Folk Songs” and “The Life and Art of Hwang Jini.” This period marked a significant evolution in his literary focus, as he began to embrace traditional forms alongside his earlier Western influences.

The poet's sijo reflects a deep intertwining of admiration for his homeland, its natural landscapes, traditional Eastern sentiments, and the Buddhist notion of impermanence. His profound affection for his country and its people manifests with an intensity akin to religious fervour. The simplicity and authenticity of his language resonate with a broad audience, contributing significantly to the resurgence of the sijo form.

Initially, he regarded sijo as inferior to literature, only embracing it as a legitimate literary form following discussions surrounding its value. Despite this initial scepticism, he engaged in writing both free verse and sijo for a period, ultimately establishing himself as a prominent sijo poet by the late 1930s. His journey into this genre marked a significant evolution in his literary identity.

In addition to composing sijo, he also translated Tang poetry into this format, thereby enriching the genre and expanding its theoretical framework. His contributions not only enhanced the sijo tradition but also demonstrated the versatility and depth of this poetic form, bridging cultural and literary boundaries.

Lee Eun Sang (이은상) – Nosan Sijo Collection (노산시조집)

In his essays featured in the Dong-A Ilbo, including “The Problem of Sijo” (April 30–May 4, 1927), “A Brief Discussion of Sijo” (April 18–25, 1928), and “The Problem of Sijo Creation” (March 30–April 9, 1932), the author sought to clarify the standard structure of sijo through pitch rather than syllable count. His inaugural personal collection, “Nosan Sijo Collection,” released in 1932, embodies themes of nostalgia, appreciation, transience, and reverence for nature.

Notable pieces such as "Thinking of Hometown," "I Want to Go," and "Night at Seongbulsa Temple" have gained popularity as songs, reflecting the simple and melodious qualities of sijo. Following liberation, his focus shifted towards social themes, emphasizing national pride, the anguish of division, aspirations for reunification, and honouring patriots. This thematic evolution culminated in the 1958 collection, ‘Nosan Sijo Anjip’, particularly in works like 'The Meaning of the Blue Sky' (1970) and his final compilation, ‘Giwon’.

His approach to sijo included an attempt to simplify the form by experimenting with the two-chapter sijo (兩章時調), although later in his career, he tended to increase syllable counts. As a historian and essayist, he utilized his extensive historical knowledge to produce numerous travelogues and biographies aimed at fostering patriotism. Post-liberation, he prioritized social contributions over literary pursuits, leaving behind a substantial body of work, including poetry collections like ‘Nosanmunseon’ and ‘Nosansimunseon’, the essay collection ‘Musang’, and over 100 books, including his biographies such as ‘Journal of Tamna Traveling Hal’.

Awards and Remembrance

Lee Eun Sang's funeral took place as a public event, culminating in his interment at the national cemetery. A commemorative monument, known as 'Gagopa Songbi' (가고파 송비), was established in Masan to honour his ancestors. In recognition of his contributions, he was posthumously awarded the Order of Merit for National Foundation in 1990.

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The History of Korean Male Soloists from the 20th Century: Episode 1/?

The inaugural episode of 'The History of Korean Male Soloists from the 20th Century' is now underway, focusing on renowned Korean artists who gained prominence during the early 20th century amid Japanese occupation.

The available information on these artists varies significantly, as they were active nearly a century ago, prior to the Korean War, which contributed to the loss or scarcity of historical records.

Kim In-sik/ Kim In Hak (김인식)

In Part 2 of The History of Korean Male Groups, I initially discussed Kim In-sik, who, along with Choi Nam-seon, is credited with the lyrics for the song '학도가' performed by the male group 'Youth Member.' However, the true authorship of these lyrics is ambiguous due to insufficient information. This discussion will primarily focus on Kim In-sik, with a brief mention of the song he may have contributed to, as I have previously covered '학도가' in Part 2.

“All a song needs is pitch and beat. It is amazing how countless songs have been created with just twelve melodies and beats, from ‘do’ to ‘si’” - Unknown

Kim In-sik, also referred to as Kim In-Hak (김인식; 金仁湜), was born in Pyongyang in 1885 and passed away in 1963. He was the fourth of five sons and is acknowledged as the pioneering Western music educator in Korea during the Japanese colonial period, which lasted from 1910 to 1945. His role in music education was pivotal, as he facilitated the introduction of Western musical principles to a culture predominantly shaped by traditional Korean music.

Kim's formal education commenced in 1896 at Sungduk School in Pyongyang, a Methodist-affiliated institution where he first encountered Western music through hymns. His musical journey was influenced by his uncle, a businessman involved in the Donghak Peasant Revolution (동학농민혁명) (11 January 1894 – 25 December 1895)., who, after his release from arrest due to his Christian faith, encouraged Kim's attendance at church, where he was exposed to Western musical forms, including hymns and the sound of the zither.

In his memoirs, featured in "A Hundred Years of Korean Western Music," Kim expressed a keen interest in observing zither performances and singing. At the age of 16, he began studying vocal music under Snook, the principal of Jeongui Girls’ School, and Hunt, a missionary's wife. Lacking access to sheet music, he initially learned by transcribing it, which ignited his inherent musical talent and passion, distinguishing him from traditional Korean music educators, who were known as "sori teachers," while those teaching Western music were identified by terms such as "nallari-pae" or "pungak-jaeng-i."

In 1901, Kim advanced to Sungsil Middle School, where he studied vocal music, organ, and other musical disciplines under the guidance of Mrs. Hunt, a missionary's wife, and Mrs. Snook, the principal of Jeongui Girls' School. His musical education expanded to include the violin and cornet, with particular excellence in organ performance. By his third year at Sungsil Middle School, he was entrusted with teaching the first-year music class, showcasing his early leadership in music education.

Upon his arrival at Sungshil School, an American instructor offered lessons in the chordoon exclusively to high-achieving students, among whom Kim In-sik was included. However, as time progressed, he became the sole remaining student. The teacher's harsh methods included striking the fingers of those who misplayed, a practice that proved intolerable for the others.

Kim In-sik developed a profound connection with the chordoon and demonstrated considerable talent in playing it. A well-known story recounts how, during his senior year, he purchased an old chordoon from a missionary's residence for 12 won, which he played alongside his dormitory friends. Lacking sufficient funds to buy the instrument alone, he collaborated with his peers to acquire it and engaged in collective practice sessions.

Nevertheless, issues soon emerged within the dormitory due to the incessant sound of the chordoon. The principal received complaints about the noise, attributing it to Kim In-sik's late-night playing. Although his skills had advanced to a level where he could teach younger students, his persistence led to discontent among his peers, ultimately resulting in his expulsion from the dormitory. Subsequently, he quickly adapted to playing the violin, mastering hymns in just three days, while also honing his cornet skills and baritone singing, employing the vocal techniques prevalent at the time.

In 1905, he composed the 'Hakdoga' (학도가) (School Song) the first Western music piece in Korea for the students to sing when a joint sports day was held at an elementary school outside of Pyongyang's West Gate. After that, he also composed the Pyo-mo-ga (Mother's Song), the Aeguk-ga (National Anthem), the Jeonjin-ga (Forward Movement) and the Gukgi-ga (National Flag Song).

In 1907-1908, at the age of 22, Kim In-sik graduated from Pyeongsil Sungsil School and moved to Seoul with the intention of studying English at the Christian Youth Association. His goal was to prepare for further studies in the United States, focusing on music. However, upon his arrival, he quickly gained recognition, leading to offers from several private schools in Seoul. Consequently, he accepted a position as a full-time music teacher, which resulted in the abandonment of his plans to study abroad.

While teaching at the middle school level, Kim In-sik also provided instruction in Western music at various private institutions, including Jinmyeong (進明), Oseong (五星), Gyeongsin (儆新), and Baejae (培材). His popularity as a music educator was evident, as he became the sole instructor of Western music in these schools, reflecting the demand for his expertise in the subject.

The student song sheet.

In 1910, following the establishment of the Joyang Club (調陽俱樂部), the first private music education institution in Korea, Kim was invited to join as a teacher. His unique qualifications made him the only available instructor for Western music at that time. Notable students from this period included Hong Nan-pa (홍난파; 洪蘭坡) and Lee Sang-jun (이상준; 李尙俊), with Hong also receiving violin lessons under Kim's guidance.

Following his tenure at the Seoul YMCA, he established the first choir in Korea, known as the Gyeongseong Choir (경성합창단;京城合唱團). Initially composed solely of male voices, the choir eventually evolved into a mixed ensemble, with its base situated at Jonggyo Church. This development marked a significant milestone in the choral landscape of Korea.

In addition to his choral leadership, he made substantial contributions to the translation of hymn lyrics into Korean, including notable works such as Schubert's "Ave Maria," (아베마리아) "Serenade" (세레나데), and Handel's "Hallelujah" (할렐루야). His efforts extended to the transcription of traditional Korean music, where he adapted pieces like "Yeongsanhoesang" (영산회상) and "Yeominrak" (여민락) into Western-style five-string notation. Furthermore, he is credited with composing the lyrics for the first verse of the refrain of "Aegukga" (애국가).

His notable compositions include "Song of a Student," (학도가; 學徒歌) "Song of a Mother," (표모가 ;漂母歌) "Song of Gradual Progress," (점진가; 漸進歌) and "Song of the National Flag" (국기가 ;國旗歌). His influence on the early development of Western music in Korea is widely recognized, establishing him as a foundational figure in this domain. Given that his teaching salary was 100 won, significantly higher than the typical 4 won for music teachers, it underscores his exceptional standing in the field. Kim In-sik is also acknowledged as the lyricist of the national anthem, having claimed authorship of its first verse, a fact corroborated by inquiries from Britannica in the early 1950s.

1935, Seoul Jeongdong First Church, male and female choir members in front of the pipe organ. Kin In Sik, the first modern music teacher in Korea who led the choir (Male in hanbok in the centre of the back row).

Following his retirement from teaching, little information is available regarding his subsequent activities or the exact timing of his retirement. It is, however, documented that he died at the age of 79 in 1963, while residing at his son's home in Daegu.

Despite the lack of detailed accounts of his life post-retirement, his influence endures through his musical works. His efforts in promoting Western music within Korea have left a significant mark on the cultural landscape.

Even after his passing, his contributions continue to resonate, serving as a testament to his enduring legacy. The music he created and the pathways he opened for Western musical traditions in Korea remain a vital part of his remembrance.

Kim In-sik is referenced in the publications '90 Years of Jeongdong First Church History' (compiled by the Jeongdong First Church History Compilation Committee, 1977) and 'A Hundred Years of Korean Western Music' (by Lee Yu-seon, Music Chunchusa, 1985).

‘Hakdoga’ (학도가)

I found this article here that was published in 2012 about ‘Hakdoga’. In 1905, he composed the 'Hakdoga' (School Song) the first Western music piece in Korea for the students to sing.

'Hakdoga' (학도가) emerged during the Enlightenment era, aiming to promote autonomy through skill development. Composed in 1905 by Kim In Sik, a Pyongyang native, the piece reflects his early exposure to the Changga genre and Western music while attending church.

During this period, the absence of formal music education in the country made Western music particularly challenging to learn and access. The church, where missionaries disseminated their cultural influences, effectively served as his music academy, and he continued to pursue music studies even after entering middle school.

Kim In Sik began his vocal training at the age of eleven, receiving guidance from missionary Mrs. Hunt during his time at Sungsil Middle School, as well as from Mrs. Snook, the principal of Jeongui Girls’ School. He meticulously copied and analyzed music scores from the missionaries' residence, which likely contributed to his ability to compose 'Hakdoga' (학도가) at the young age of twenty-one, having been immersed in Western music from an early stage.

He got kicked out after playing the organ all night

He exhibited both exceptional intelligence and remarkable talent. While residing in the dormitory of Sungsil Middle School, he collaborated with his peers to purchase a second-hand organ. He played it with friends in a communal area, yet lacked formal instruction. Consequently, he became engrossed in the instrument, practicing incessantly, which ultimately led to complaints from other students and his expulsion from the dormitory. Missionaries recognized his innate ability, prompting him to self-learn and refine his skills to a professional level.

Kim In Sik also demonstrated his proficiency with the violin, managing to tune his newly acquired instrument without assistance and skillfully performing hymns within days, much to the astonishment of the missionaries. He composed the "Student Song" for a joint sports day at an elementary school in Pyongyang, alongside several other pieces, including "Pyo-mo-ga," which expressed his personal feelings, "Jeon-jin-ga," and "Guk-gi-ga," marking the beginning of his journey as a professional composer.

Hong Nan-pa (Left), and Lee Sang-jun (Right)

'Hakdoga' (학도가) features a 4/4-time signature and a 16-beat single-line melody, exhibiting a rhythmic structure akin to Western music while employing the traditional Korean pentatonic scale. The piece concludes with a half-final, a technique borrowed from Japanese music, which involves ending a section with either a dominant or subdominant chord. This composition marks a significant milestone as the first song created by a professional composer, signalling the transition from an oral tradition to a more stylized musical form within the culture.

Following his graduation from Sungsil Middle School, Kim In Sik was appointed as a teacher in the Western Music Department at the Joyang Club (調陽俱樂部), the first music education institution in Korea, allowing him to showcase his developed skills. His notable students, including Hong Nan-pa and Lee Sang-jun, who earned the title of the Schubert of Korea, further exemplify his influence, as does his establishment of the first choir at Seoul Jogyo Church, which played a crucial role in the introduction of music to the Korean context.

Participated in writing National Anthem lyrics

The Korean national anthem was officially adopted in 1902, during the era of the Korean Empire. Recognizing the importance of a national anthem as a unifying symbol, Emperor Gojong, the founder of the Korean Empire, commissioned Minister of State Yun Yong-seon to create one. To fulfil this task, Yun Yong-seon enlisted the help of Franz Eckert, a German composer and conductor of the Joseon Royal Military Band, who completed the anthem on July 1, 1902.

Franz Eckert (5 April 1852 – 6 August 1916) was a German composer and musician who composed the harmony for Japan's national anthem, "Kimigayo" and the national anthem of the Korean Empire, "Aegukga".

The inaugural national anthem, officially titled 'Great Korean Empire Aegukga' or "Patriotic Hymn of the Great Korean Empire" (대한제국 애국가; 大韓帝國愛國歌) , was published in five languages—Korean, Chinese, German, French, and English—and was first performed on September 9 during Emperor Gojong's birthday celebration.

Following the Japan-Korea Annexation, the anthem could no longer be used, prompting Yun Chi-ho to adopt the English folk song 'Auld Lang Syne' with modified lyrics as a temporary national anthem. The current national anthem, composed by Ahn Ik-tae in Austria in 1935, was officially adopted with the establishment of the Republic of Korea in 1948.

In the 1950s, the British encyclopaedia publisher Britannica inquired about the authorship of Korea's national anthem. At that time, there was a prevailing belief that Kim In Sik, recognized as the first Korean lyricist and composer, might be the author. During a visit from his aunt in Daegu, she questioned him about this claim, to which he reportedly placed his hand on the Bible and asserted that he had written the anthem's first verse. The debate regarding the true authorship of the entire national anthem continues, involving figures such as Yun Chi-ho, Min Yeong-hwan, Choi Byeong-heon, Kim In-sik, and Ahn Chang-ho.

The national anthem ‘KOREA NATIONAL HYMN’ discovered in Hawaii (Left) and the sheet music for the national anthem by Ahn Ik-tae, which became the current national anthem (Right). The discovery of the 'KOREAN NATIONAL HYMN' in Hawaii can be attributed to its significance in numerous heritage studies conducted by South Korea prior to the Japanese annexation, as many citizens of the Korean Empire had emigrated to Hawaii during that period. A notable event occurred when a descendant of a Korean Empire émigré presented a unique original passport, over a century old and issued by the Korean Empire, to South Korean President Roh Moo-hyun during his visit to Hawaii.

Kim Yeon-gap, the executive director of the Hankyoreh Arirang Union, articulated in a column that Kim In Sik's national anthem, titled "KOREA," shares a similar structure with the existing national anthem. However, the title's English designation, the use of a British folk melody instead of an original score, and the differing lyrics in the chorus suggest that Kim In Sik's anthem can be regarded as a distinct rendition of the current anthem.

This indicates that, despite not being the author of the current anthem's lyrics, Kim In Sik's version holds its own significance. Much like the Hawaiian adaptation of the national anthem, which honours national tradition, it is essential to reflect on the deeper meanings embedded in Kim In Sik's composition. He was a compassionate composer who, having witnessed the nation's tumultuous history, sought to inspire hope through his music.

[cosmosbeelover]

The History of Korean Male Groups – From Yeonhee Professional Singers’ Quartet to BTS -> Pt. 5/? (Rewrite)

I am quite surprised by the limited information available regarding this male group, which is known by two different names. I will endeavour to clarify the situation; the group in question is referred to as either 'Arirang Boys' (아리랑보이즈는) or 'Joseon Music Troupe' (조선악극단). It remains unclear why they operated under these two names. This situation is reminiscent of the male groups 'Yeonhee Professional Quartet' (연희전문사중창단) and 'Youth Member' (청년회원), where the former has significantly more information available compared to the later.

Before Liberation – 1940s

Prior to delving deeper, I would like to clarify my approach to discussing this male group, which predates the liberation era and thus had limited information available, similar to my previous post regarding the first two male groups (Part 2). I will first outline the group and its members, followed by the company they were associated with. Additionally, I will mention the 'Jeogori Sisters,' who were part of the same company as the 'Arirang Boys,' noting that one member from each group is a married couple. However, I will refrain from providing extensive details about the 'Jeogori Sisters' as they will be addressed in a future post within The History of Korean Girl Groups.

The Arirang Boys (아리랑보이즈는), a four-member project group, emerged around 1940 and frequently performed alongside the Jeogori Sisters, a female ensemble featuring Lee Nan-young (이난영), Jang Se-jeong (장세정), Kim Neung-ja (김능자), Lee Jun-hee (이준희), and Seo Bong-hee (서봉희). The group comprised Kim Hae-song (김해송), a singer and composer married to Lee Nan-young, composer Park Si-chun (박시춘), comedian Lee Bok-bon (이복본) known for his jazz performances, and composer-arranger Song Hee-sun (송희선). Additionally, Hyun Kyung-seop (현경섭), a trumpet player for an orchestra record company, occasionally filled in for other members.

In no particular order, members of Arirang Boys: Kim Hae-song (김해송), Park Si-chun (박시춘), Lee Bok-bon (이복본), Song Hee-sun (송희선) and Hyun Kyung-seop (현경섭) who occasionally filled in for other members.

Despite not releasing any albums, they achieved popularity through their use of instruments like the guitar and violin, enhancing their stage performances. According to singer Kim Jeong-gu's (김정구) testimony prior to his death, the Arirang Boys were particularly cherished for their comedic interludes during shows.

The Arirang Boys Members:

I will briefly talk about the ‘Arirang Boys’ members here but will go into detail about them separately in future posts.

Kim Hae-song (김해송)

A few other photos of him here.

Kim Hae-song, whose real name was Kim Song-gyu (金松奎) and Japanese name Kyouya Kobayashi (金山松夫), was born in December 1911 in Gaecheon, Pyeongannam-do, during the Japanese colonial era, and he passed away around 1950 at approximately 39 or 40 years of age. It is believed that he remained in Seoul throughout the Korean War and died while being abducted to North Korea.

A multifaceted artist, he was a composer, singer, lyricist, guitarist, and musical director, active from 1935 to 1950. He graduated from Pyongyang Gwangseong High School in 1933, and although there are unverified claims of his attendance at Sungsil College and Jochi University in Japan, these remain unconfirmed. In 1935, he signed with Okeh Records, marking the beginning of his career as a singer and composer.

Lee Bok-bon (이복본)

Lee Bok-bon (李福本), born in Seoul in 1911 and died around 1950?, he was a singer from Joseon and South Korea . He first appeared on the stage of Joseon Theater Company in 1933 and appeared in director Ahn Jong-hwa's (안종화) film 'Crossroads of Youth' (청춘의 십자로) in 1934. He is also called "Korea's first jazz singer" as a member of the Seoul theater company 'Mooran Rouge'. However, during the Korean War, he was kidnapped by the North Korean People's Army during the Battle of Seoul and disappeared thereafter, and is presumed to have died.

Park Si-chun (박시춘)

A few other photos him and information but nothing new here.

Park Si-chun, real name Park Soon-dong (박순동; 朴順東) was born on October 28, 1913, in Miryang, South Korea, was a versatile artist who passed away on June 30, 1996, at 82. His talents included music composition, guitar, and proficiency in instruments like the trumpet, violin, and saxophone. He also worked in the film industry as an actor, director, producer, and music director.

One of his notable works is the pro-Japanese song "Blood Letter Support," which expresses a desire to serve as a volunteer soldier during the Pacific War. The lyrics, by Jo Myeong-am, reflect strong pro-Japanese sentiments. In 2008, he was recognized as a pro-Japanese figure by the Institute for Research in Collaborationist Activities, and a festival honouring him sparked controversy. He was also listed among 705 pro-Japanese anti-nationalists by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 2009.

Song Hee-sun (송희선)

I’m not shore which person in the photo shown above is Song Hee-Sun, but I hope this information that I found on him even though it a lot, is the wright Song Hee-sun.

The birth and death dates of Song Hee-sun remain unknown. He began his music education at Sungsil High School in Pyongyang and later ventured into the Japanese light music scene, establishing himself as a saxophonist and subsequently performing with OK Grand Shodan.

His notable contributions include musical dramas like "Dongyang no Rose" (동양의 장미) and "Golden Come Out Ttuktak," (금 나와라 뚝딱) as well as the song "The Young Days of the Sea" (바다의 젊은 날). Additionally, the arrangements he created for Lee Hwa-ja (이화자) during the Japanese colonial era are featured on the Oke album.

Hyun Kyung-seop (현경섭)

I’m not shore which person in the photo shown above is Hyun Kyung-seop, he might not be in the photo because he was occasionally filled in for other members at the time. While I was looking into Hun Kyung-seop I found this blog about him, that the National Museum of Korean History published a collection of Hyun Kyun-seop. As there is little information that I could find I’m going to add all the information here, but i will post him and other members' information separately in the future.

The National Museum of Korean History has published a collection featuring 267 artifacts related to Hyun Kyung-seop, a prominent trumpet player associated with Oke Records during the Japanese colonial era. This collection encompasses photographs of Hyun Kyung-seop and his personal diaries, providing insight into his life during this tumultuous period. Despite his significant contributions to music, particularly as a key member of the Joseon Music Troupe, Hyun Kyung-seop remains largely unremembered by contemporary audiences.

Beginning his career at the age of 22 in 1935, Hyun Kyung-seop gained recognition for his performances in Japan and China, with media outlets even comparing him to the legendary Louis Armstrong. His versatility extended beyond trumpet playing to include arranging, acting, dancing, and singing. However, his life took a tragic turn during the Korean War when he was abducted by North Korean soldiers in Seoul, leading to a prolonged absence that left his family in distress. Despite efforts by his son, Hyun-won, to locate him, including a DNA test through the Red Cross, the family faced numerous hardships due to the stigma associated with his disappearance, which severely restricted their opportunities and freedoms.

Hyun Kyun-seop playing the trumpet in the middle.

This compilation encompasses original images from each day of Hyun Kyung-seop’s diary, a variety of identification documents, photographs of his music colleagues, and all phonograph records he possessed, which have been digitally restored and compiled onto a DVD.

However, these DVDs are currently unavailable for access to my knowledge.

The once-obscure trumpet player Hyun Kyung-seop, who nearly faded from historical memory following his performance at the Seoul Geukdo Theatre in June 1950, has been immortalized through a collection published by the National Museum of Korean History. Transitioning from anonymity to becoming a symbol of the Japanese colonial era and the post-liberation music scene, this collection, made possible by the contributions of his family and the museum's restoration efforts, serves as a crucial resource for understanding the evolution of popular music in Korea.

Okeh Records (오케레코드):

Oke and Okeh Records are the same company. The photos shown below are people that worked for or with Okeh Records, and were attached with the information that I found of the company.

Founded in the early 1930s, Okeh Records highlighted diverse talents from Korea and Japan. Despite facing censorship and limitations, the label effectively developed around six notable groups, producing music films and establishing the Orchestration Team, Orchestra Music 'n Dance Research Institute, while managing Okestudio and theatres both domestically and internationally. The label also toured extensively across Korea, Japan, and Northern Asia, and created military songs. Although Okeh ceased its activities due to the Pacific War, its substantial yet often overlooked influence laid an essential groundwork for future artists following liberation.

Oke Records, a South Korean record label, was operational both prior to and following the country's liberation. The name "Okeh" derives from the Japanese pronunciation of the English term "Okay," and it is represented in the alphabet as 'Okeh.'

Founded in 1932, the exact date and conditions of its inception are not well-documented; however, the celebration of the '15th Anniversary of the Joseon Musical Troupe' (조선악극단) in April 1947 implies that the organization may have been established around April 1932.

Okeh Records was the latest addition to the five major record companies active during the Japanese colonial period, which included Columbia Records, Victor Records, Polydol Records, and Taepyeong Records, all of which ceased operations by 1943, coinciding with the end of the Pacific War. Despite being the last to enter the market, Okeh Records achieved notable success, becoming the second-largest producer of records and playing a crucial role in promoting many of the era's most prominent artists and songs.

Initially, the company was known as the Japanese Okeh Gramophone Company Gyeongseong Temporary Sales Office, later rebranded as the Gyeongseong Branch. The management was overseen by a Korean named Lee Cheol, although information regarding the company's financial structure is scarce. It is clear that Okeh Records depended on Japan's Teichiku Records for its recording and pressing operations, indicating a significant initial partnership with Teichiku. A theory suggests that Lee Cheol's wife, Hyeon Song-ja, had a school friend whose father was an executive at Teichiku Records, which may have aided in the branch's establishment; however, this connection remains unverified.

Okeh Records launched its first album in February 1933 and maintained an active production schedule for approximately 11 years, concluding around late 1943 or early 1944. It ranked second in the volume of new album releases, following Columbia Records, and played a pivotal role in the popular music industry, significantly outpacing its rivals. Initially, the company operated from the Japanese Deichiku Records studio until early 1936, after which it established its own recording facilities in Gyeongseong (Seoul) by late 1936, marking the beginning of its Gyeongseong recording era.

From its inception, Okeh Records prioritized stage performances and album production, featuring one of the finest bands of the time. The company distinguished itself by ensuring that all arrangements and accompaniments for popular music were performed by Korean musicians as Gyeongseong recording evolved. In 1937, Teichiku Records appointed Imura Ryozui as branch manager, taking over the operational rights from Lee Cheol, which led to the rebranding of the company as Teichiku Records Gyeongseong Branch.

Following a fire in January 1941, plans for a new office building were set in motion, resulting in a facility with studios completed by mid-May. Although the precise date of Okeh Records' final album release remains uncertain, it is believed that production continued until late 1943, with operations effectively ceasing in 1944 after the withdrawal of Japanese capital post-liberation. The reestablishment of Okeh Records in August 1948, highlighted by albums such as “Cry Silver Bell,” signified a new entity while honouring the legacy of the original Okeh Records.

Okegrand Show (오케그랜드쇼)

Since its inaugural album release in 1933, Okeh Records had prioritized stage performances, featuring a performance group known as the "Okeh Ensemble," (오케 앙상블) which consisted of artists exclusive to the label and toured extensively across the country, Japan, and Manchuria during recording intervals.

The transition of Okeh Ensemble into the Okeh Grand Show occurred when the operational rights of Okeh Records were transferred from Lee Cheol to Imura Ryozui, who had been sent from Japan's Teichiku Records post-1937.

Group of women that worked in Okeh Records. Not shore when this photo was taken probably around 1940s, and the name of the women are in the photo.

Following this shift, Lee Cheol, facing limitations on his decision-making in the recording industry, founded the Joseon Entertainment Company (initially named Joseon Recording Company) in January 1938, thereby venturing into a new domain of stage performances.

This evolution led to the reformation of the traditional orchestra into the Orchestra Grand Show, which emerged as the premier performing group in Joseon, eventually evolving into the ‘Joseon Musical Troupe’ (조선악극단) after its inaugural tour of Japan in 1939.

Orchestration Team (오케싱잉팀)

As the Joseon Akgeukdan expanded and managing multiple schedules became increasingly challenging, a sister group was established to split the performances into two factions, concentrating on popular music. This led to the formation of the Okesinging Team.

Both Photos - Not shore the name of the two ladies but both worked with Okeh Records. Note shore when both of these photo’s was taken, probably around 1940s.

The Okesinging (오케싱잉) Team, or Okegayodan (오케가요단), made its debut in June 1940, showcasing prominent artists from Okerecord, such as Lee Nan-young, Nam In-su, and Lee Hwa-ja. Despite its formal designation as a distinct entity, the Okesinging Team frequently performed alongside the Joseon Akgeukdan during events. Active until 1941, the Okesinging Team focused on musical performances before entering a brief hiatus. In 1943, it rebranded as the Shinseng Theatre Group (신생극단), broadening its repertoire beyond music and re-emerging on stage.

Orchestra Music and Dance Research Institute (오케음악무용연구소)

Akgeuk and Akgeukdan are the ‘Joseon Musical Troup’, I’m not shore why they are written as Akgeuk or Akgeukdan.

The Okeh Music and Dance Research Institute, founded by Lee Cheol (이철), who also established the Joseon Entertainment Company and led the ‘Joseon Musical Troupe’ (조선악극단), aimed to continuously identify and cultivate talent in popular arts, marking it as the first specialized educational institution for this field in history. Established in September 1940, the institute was directed by Lee Cheol, supported by a faculty of 13 professors from diverse disciplines who provided rigorous education to carefully selected students. Notable faculty members included Kim Hyeong-rae (김형래) in music, along with Kim Min-ja (김민자), Jo Yeong-suk (조영숙), and Lee Jun-hee (이준희) in dance.

This photo was taken in 1943 after the ‘Joseon Musical Troupe’ (조선악극단), the greatest entertainment group of its time, finished a performance in Tokyo to comfort Prince Yeong Chin. It was obtained and made public by Lee Jun-hee (이준희), a visiting professor at Sungkonghoe University (성공회대학교; 聖公會大學校). English – (1) Prince Yeong Chin (Lee Eun) (2) Princess Yi/ Lee Bang-ja (3) Kim Jeong-gu (4) Jang Se-jeong (5) Lee Nan-yeong (6) Lee Cheol, head of the Joseon Musical Troupe (7) Kim Hae-song (8) Lee Bok-bon (9) Lee Jong-cheol. Korean – (1) 영친왕(이은) (2) 이방자 (3) 김정구 (4) 장세정 (5) 이난영 (6) 이철 조선악극단장 (7) 김해송 (8) 이복본 (9) 이종철.

In February 1941, the inaugural performance of the first class of cadets, who had trained for approximately six months, took place, with Kim Baek-hee (김백희; 金白姬) emerging as the most distinguished among them; she later became a leading figure in musical theatre following Korea's liberation. By April 1941, an advertisement was released to recruit the second class, establishing an annual selection process for new cadets. These trainees underwent three years of instruction, during which they were not initially compensated but were exempt from tuition and provided with fashionable uniforms. After acquiring sufficient training and skill, they performed as backup dancers or in the chorus for the Joseon Music Troupe, with the most talented individuals given the chance to perform solo by their third year. Those who remained until their third year could earn a significant salary.

Baek Seol-hee (백설희; 白雪姬), who later thrived in musical and popular song genres post-liberation, was part of the third class selected in 1942 and made her solo debut just before graduating in 1944. Alongside Kim Baek-hee and Baek Seol-hee, the Okeh Music and Dance Research Institute nurtured numerous other talents in music and dance, such as Kang Yun-bok (강윤복; 康允福), Shim Yeon-ok (심연옥; 沈蓮玉), and Joo Ri (주리; 朱莉), significantly contributing to the continuation of Lee Cheol's legacy until the 1950s. The Aoi (アオイ) Music Theatre Troupe, a performance group, was established in May 1941.

Similar to the Joseon Music Theatre Troupe, the Joseon Entertainment Company managed the Aoi Music Troupe, which seemingly maintained a strong affiliation with the Okeh Music and Dance Research Institute. The troupe consisted entirely of female newcomers, and the Okeh Institute was the primary source for such talent, indicating a natural collaboration. The term 'Aoi,' which translates to 'blue' in Japanese, likely derives from 'Aoyama,' the surname of Lee Cheol, the leader of the Joseon Entertainment Company.

Following Lee Cheol's death in June 1944, the Okeh Institute rebranded itself as the Cheongsan Music and Dance Research Institute, further linking the name to Lee Cheol. The Aoi Music Troupe made its debut along the Honam Line in late May 1941; however, the absence of subsequent records suggests it may not have achieved commercial success and was likely disbanded. From the perspective of the Joseon Entertainment Company, this initiative can be viewed as a trial endeavour.

The last witness of the 'Joseon Musical Troupe', the life of Kang Yun-bok

This article was published after Kang Yun-bok’s (강윤복) who was a veteran dancer passed away in 2015, and talk about his life who worked for Okeh Records, and like the title says, he was a witness of the ‘Joseon Musical Troupe’ (조선악극단). I’ll briefly talk about him with the little information i found about him, as for some reason there is little information about him, don’t know why?

Veteran dancer Kang Yun-bok, whose birth name was Kang Yun-deok (강윤복), passed away on May 12, 2015, at the age of 91, due to natural causes.

Born in Pyongyang in 1924, Kang was a prominent member of the Joseon Music Troupe, a notable musical ensemble during the Japanese colonial era, and subsequently performed with the KPK Orchestra under the direction of composer Kim Hae-song, as well as the 8th US Army Show.

Kim Yun-bok during a KPK Orchestra performance in the late 1940s.

The 8th US Army Show thrived from 1953, coinciding with the presence of US forces during the Korean War, until the mid-1960s, when troop levels decreased due to the Vietnam War, and it was instrumental in launching the careers of various stars, including Patty Kim and Bok hee Yoon.

Music critic Park Sung-seo remarked that Kang Yun-bok was the last living member of the Joseon Akgeukdan, the premier popular culture group of the Japanese colonial period, noting that his low public profile has contributed to his obscurity, despite his significant role in the history of popular music.

Kang was married to the late Jeon Hae-nam, a trailblazer in Korean tap dancing, and he is survived by his son Park Jae-bin and daughters Dan-hee, Jin-hee, and Hyeon-hee.

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In September 1940, a significant milestone occurred in the realm of Korean popular arts with the establishment of the Okeh Music and Dance Research Institute by Lee Cheol, a prominent figure in colonial Joseon's music scene. Lee, who had already made a substantial impact through his work with Okeh Records and the Joseon Music Theatre Company, aimed to cultivate future talent in popular arts through this private educational institution. The institute became a breeding ground for numerous musicians and dancers who gained prominence in the 1940s and 1950s.

Kim Hae-song, Kang Yun-bok, and Joo Ri during a KPK Orchestra performance in the late 1940s.

The inaugural class attracted many teenage girls, who were enticed by the offer of free music, dance, and liberal arts education for three years, with the opportunity to perform on the Joseon Music Theatre Company stage for those who excelled. Ultimately, around 40 students were selected based on their appearance, talent, and growth potential, although the curriculum, which encompassed music theory, vocal training, and diverse dance styles, proved to be quite challenging.

After three years, only nine students graduated from the initial cohort of 40, among whom Kang Yun-bok (1924-2015) emerged as a notable dancer alongside Kim Baek-hee, a vocal music standout. Kang, who passed away on May 12, had initially enrolled at the research institute while attending Sookmyung Girls’ High School, driven by her passion for dance despite her family's strong opposition. Her remarkable talent and dedication soon alleviated her family's concerns, allowing her to flourish in her chosen path.

In April 1941, merely six months after his enrolment at the institute, he made his debut with the ‘Joseon Musical Troupe’ (조선악극단), quickly becoming a prominent member of the ensemble that performed across Korea, Manchuria, Japan, and China. By May 1943, he witnessed Prince Yeong Chin moved to tears by Kim Jeong-gu’s rendition of “Fallen Flowers Three Thousand” at the Prince’s Tokyo residence, and in June 1944, he learned of the unexpected passing of Lee Cheol, the troupe's leader, in Shanghai.

Kang Yun-bok, who appeared in a theatre show in the late 1950s

Following liberation, as the Joseon Akgeuk Troupe began to wane, Mr. Kang Yun-bok transitioned to the KPK Orchestra, which debuted in December 1945. This orchestra, founded by composer Kim Hae-song—a former key member of the Joseon Akgeuk Troupe who had departed earlier—incorporated many of its members, including Mr. Kang Yun-bok, effectively becoming its successor.

While the early 1940s marked the prominence of the Joseon Akgeuk Troupe, the late 1940s signified the rise of the KPK Orchestra. With the burgeoning Akgeuk market, Mr. Kang Yun-bok not only performed with various groups, including the KPK Orchestra, but also emerged as a significant choreographer.

The onset of the Korean War led to the loss of Kim Hae-song, the disbandment of the KPK Orchestra, and a swift decline in Akgeuk; however, Mr. Kang Yun-bok's influence in popular dance expanded during this tumultuous period.

In addition to various performances that supplanted musicals, the U.S. 8th Army Show, which gained momentum in the mid-1950s, and the presence of U.S. troops in Okinawa, Japan, created a demand for Mr. Kang Yun-bok's dance expertise. Furthermore, with the decision to deploy Korean troops to the Vietnam War, the Southeast Asian performance venues also sought his talents.

Beginning in the late 1960s, Kang Yun-bok primarily focused on stage and broadcast choreography while dedicating himself to mentoring future artists. His nearly four-decade career, which concluded in the late 1970s, represents a crucial chapter in the evolution of Korean popular dance. Despite the significant decline of this genre over the years, Kang's contributions extend beyond popular dance, playing a vital role in enriching the broader narrative of modern and contemporary Korean performing arts.

Group of women that worked in Okeh Records. Not shore when this photo was taken probably around 1940s, and the name of the women are in the photo.

The National Arts Archives has persistently sought Kang Yun-bok's involvement in the ongoing "Oral Recording of Korean Modern and Contemporary Art History" project, initiated in 2003. After several refusals, he finally agreed to participate on the 15th of last month.

Preparations for the project were progressing smoothly, with plans to finalize administrative tasks and commence the official oral recording in early June; however, Kang Yun-bok's unexpected passing occurred before this could take place. The loss of this key figure, who could have provided invaluable insights into the largely unrecognized Chosun Akgeukdan and KPK Orchestra, is profoundly felt.

While it is not uncommon for an individual's death to erase memories of a particular era, the immediate sense of loss in this instance is striking. Nevertheless, Mr. Kang Yun-bok left behind words and materials, and it is hoped that these can be gathered to illuminate the rich history of the past stage performances.

Joseon Musical Troupe's Performance to visit Prince Yeong Chin

This article published in 2010 was about a photo of the ‘Joseon Musical Troup’ visiting Prince Yeong Chin, that was deemed lost or a myth being found. I won’t go into much detail about the two royal family members shown in the photo as my main focus here is the ‘Joseon Musical Troup’.

Crown Prince Uimin Yi Eun, also known as Prince Yeong Chin or Lee Eun, lived from October 20, 1897, to May 1, 1970. He was part of the Imperial Family of the Korean Empire and held a political role within the Empire of Japan. He was married to Princess Yi Bang-ja, who was born on November 4, 1901, and passed away on April 30, 1989. Princess Yi Bang-ja was also a member of the Imperial Family of Japan and was the eldest daughter of Prince Nashimotonomiya Morimasa, making her the first queen.

At the former location of the palace, the evening smoke drifts lazily in the gentle river breeze, prompting a reflection on the fate of the three thousand palace ladies who once resided there.

In 1943, Kim Jeong-gu, a prominent 27-year-old singer of his era, performed his renowned song "Fallen Flowers Three Thousand" (낙화삼천) at the Akasaka mansion in Tokyo for Prince Yeongchin (Lee Eun) and Princess Yeongchin (Lee Bang-ja), who were held captive in Japan. The poignant performance moved Prince Yeongchin to tears, and soon, all fifty attendees were similarly affected.

A notable legend in Korean pop history recounts how the finest singers of the Joseon dynasty travelled to Japan to perform for Prince Yeong Chin, resulting in a collective outpouring of tears from the audience. The photograph surfaced, providing evidence that substantiates this poignant narrative. (The photo in question shown below)

This photo was taken in 1943 after they finished a performance in Tokyo to comfort Prince Yeong Chin. It was obtained and made public by Lee Jun-hee (이준희), a visiting professor at Sungkonghoe University (성공회대학교; 聖公會大學校). Prince Yeong Chin (Lee Eun) (영친왕(이은) and Princess Yi/ Lee Bang-ja (이방자) can be seen in the centre of the photo surrounded by the ‘Joseon Musical Troupe’.

Lee Jun-hee, a visiting professor at Sungkonghoe University and an authority on vintage pop music, revealed on the 24th that he uncovered a commemorative photograph of the ‘Joseon Musical Troupe’ (조선악극단), which featured prominent artists of the era such as Kim Jeong-gu, Lee Nan-young, Jang Se-jeong, Song Dal-hyeop, and Kim Hae-song, alongside Lee Bok-bon and Lee Jong-cheol, during their visit to Prince Yeong Chin’s residence in Akasaka in 1943, where they held a consolation performance for the king.

The photograph was preserved by Kang Yun-bok, an 86-year-old first-year researcher at the Music and Dance Research Institute of Oke Records, led by Lee Cheol, the troupe's head, and Kang's experience parallels that of a modern trainee in a major entertainment agency. He also recounted the poignant moment when Prince Yeong Chin and the troupe members were moved to tears by Kim Jeong-gu's performance.

The professor noted that the Joseon Akgeukdan, established in the 1930s, was instrumental in cultivating many legendary singers and enjoyed significant popularity in Japan, which contributed to their emotional connection to Prince Yeong Chin, reflecting their sorrow over the loss of their homeland, a sentiment shared by all the performers who have since passed away.

I found the news clip of the ‘Joseon Musical Troupe’ first public release of footage of them. First public release of footage of the 'Joseon Akgeukdan' from the Japanese colonial period Anchor Translation – “Do you know about the 'Joseon Musical Troupe', which featured the best stars of the time during the Japanese colonial period? KBS has obtained footage of the Joseon Musical Troupe's activities, which soothed the nation's sorrow. This is reporter Cho Ji-hyeon.” Report Translation - "This is a performance by the Joseon Music Troupe in Japan in 1939, during the Japanese colonial period. The song they are singing passionately is the new folk song “A New Day Is Dawning.” You can see the faces of Go Bok-su, the greatest star of the time, from Living in a Foreign Land, Lee Nan-young from Tears of Mokpo, Jang Se-jeong from The Ferry Departs, and Nam In-su. This is “Money Song” sung by Kim Jeong-gu. <Recording> “The wind is blowing. The wind of money is blowing.” The conductor, Son Mok-in, is a giant of our music industry who composed Tears of Mokpo and Living in a Foreign Land. These videos were inserted into a Japanese film and are being released for the first time in 70 years. <Interview> Lee Jun-hee (Visiting Professor at Sungkonghoe University): “The oldest popular song material... It has tremendous historical significance.” During the Japanese colonial period, the Joseon Music Troupe enjoyed immense popularity, to the point of touring China and Japan. A photo taken in 1943 with the Joseon Music Troupe at the invitation of Prince Yeongchin, who was taken as a hostage to Japan, has also been released. It is said that Prince Yeongchin shed tears when Kim Jeong-gu sang 'Nakhwasamcheon', which is about the fall of Baekje. The Joseon Musical Troupe, which comforted the pain of the nation with songs during the colonial period. You can watch videos of their activities on the special song stage for the founding of the public corporation. This is Jo Ji-hyun from KBS News."

The photograph was featured on KBS 1TV's "Gayo Stage" as part of a special broadcast commemorating Independence Movement Day on March 1. During this episode, a video from 1939 showcasing the Joseon Akgeukdan was presented, which the production team acquired through a professor. The footage included performances by notable singers such as Nam In-su, Kim Jeong-gu, Go Bok-su, Jang Se-jeong, and Lee Nan-young, who collectively sang contemporary folk songs like "Don Taryeong" and "A New Day Is Bright." Producer Kang Young-won remarked that this video is likely the oldest surviving recording related to Korean pop music

There are probably more interviews about people talking about Okah Records and other Korean record company artists out there but at this point i can't find any more. If people can find any more interviews about veteran artists just post them below, it would really helpful.

While concluding my research on Okah Records, I discovered several interviews filmed in 2009 featuring individuals who were either married to or children of the artists associated with Okah Records during the 1940s. The interviews included Lee Young-mi, daughter of Lee Cheol; Oh Jeong-sim, wife of Son Mok-in; and Kim Young-jae, son of Kim Seong-heum. Unfortunately, these videos lack subtitles, leaving me unable to comprehend their discussions.

Despite the limited availability of videos featuring their families discussing these renowned artists, gaining insights and engaging with those who knew them proves invaluable for understanding the history of the Korean entertainment industry prior to liberation.

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The History of Korean Male Groups – From Yeonhee Professional Singers’ Quartet to BTS -> Pt. 4/? (Rewrite)

This is a continuation from Part 3, this is on the broadcasting in Korea that the Yeonhui Professional Quartet performed on and many other acts during the Japanese Colonial Period.

The birth and demise of broadcasting stations

This text provides an overview of the broadcasting stations in Korea from the period prior to liberation through the 1980s and 1990s.

The emergence and dissolution of broadcasting stations in Korea hold significant historical importance. This narrative includes the pivotal moment of Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule, the media consolidation measures implemented in 1980, instances where private broadcasting entities failed to obtain approval from regulatory bodies, and the various factors contributing to the closure of these stations, including economic challenges and shifts in international circumstances.

Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station (JODK)(경성방송국)

I previously refrained from discussing this broadcasting station because I was still unfamiliar with Korean history research and believed there was insufficient information available. Consequently, I thought including it would not be beneficial. However, I will incorporate it now, as I have discovered intriguing details about its significant role in the Korean industry, particularly in supporting the promotion of both historical and contemporary Korean acts.

The Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station (JODK) (경성방송국; 朝鮮放送協會), established during the Japanese colonial period, was the first broadcasting entity to halt operations after Korea's liberation. Its operational timeline is February 16th 1927 till August 5th 1948. Although the name Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station was discontinued post-liberation, a significant question arises regarding whether the subsequent broadcasting organization should be viewed as a continuation of the original station or as the founding of a new entity.

The first broadcasting station in Korea established by Japanese, Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station (JODK, 1927-1947)

On November 30, 1926, the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station received permission from Japanese nationals and the Japanese Government-General of Korea to operate broadcasting and wireless telephone services as a corporate entity. It subsequently registered with the Gyeongseong District Court on December 11. This establishment was presented as a means to promote the cultural development and welfare of the peninsula's residents, which led to the approval of the 'Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station' and a 'broadcasting culture facility.'

First broadcast site (Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station site), 1-76 Jeong-dong, Jung-gu, Seoul (inside Deoksu Elementary School).

As a result, the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station, which opened on February 16, 1927, became the first broadcasting station in Korea and the forerunner of today's KBS. Established by Japanese individuals with support from the Japanese Government-General, the station aimed to meet the informational and cultural needs of the Japanese community in Korea while also promoting compliance among Koreans with the Japanese colonial regime.

The board of directors was entirely composed of Japanese members, one of whom was responsible for nominating a chairman, subject to the approval of the Director of the Postal Bureau of the Government-General. Ultimately, the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station operated as a non-profit organization that primarily advanced Japan's interests in reinforcing its colonial agenda in Korea, neglecting the aspirations of the Korean people.

What is JODK?

The call sign JODK was assigned to Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station, making it Japan's fourth station after the ITU designated the prefix JO, following Tokyo (JOAK), Osaka (JOBK), and Nagoya (JOCK). The Government-General of Korea initially opposed the use of the call sign DK by the Japanese Post Office, arguing it contradicted Japan's colonial policy of integrating domestic and foreign stations, leading to the designation of DK as the fourth call sign.

Formation policy in the early days of the country

The inception of the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station coincided with the nascent phase of broadcasting in Japan, characterized by a lack of established programming principles, which hindered the organization of programs according to any systematic policies.

Article 6 of the Japanese "Summary of Research" emphasizes that broadcasting management in Japan should prioritize practical reporting—covering aspects such as time, weather, awards, and news—while relegating music to a secondary role.

Instrumental ensemble that appeared on Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station

This principle was inevitably imposed on Korea, a colony, albeit with an additional programming directive aimed at appeasing the Korean populace, which proclaimed the enhancement and development of Korean culture as an ideal. Despite the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station's assertion of a mission focused on cultural advancement and public welfare, it effectively functioned as a crucial instrument of national policy in the governance of the peninsula.

Early alternate broadcasting (mixed broadcasting)

Upon its inception, the broadcasting system was characterized by an unusual structure, featuring alternating Korean and Japanese broadcasts on a single channel. Initially, the ratio of Korean to Japanese broadcasts was set at 1 to 3; however, following criticism from various media outlets, this ratio was adjusted to 2 to 3 in July of that year, maintaining the alternating format.

This approach, referred to as mixed broadcasting, manifested in four distinct formats: first, simultaneous broadcasting of Korean and Japanese programs within the same time slot; second, grouping programs for alternating broadcasts centered around time reports; third, separating programs to air on alternate days; and fourth, scheduling Korean broadcasts late at night after the conclusion of all Japanese programming.

Implementation of double broadcasting

In the initial phase of broadcasting, the disparity in the availability of Korean and Japanese languages created dissatisfaction among listeners. To remedy this issue, a dual broadcasting framework was established on April 26, 1933, which featured Japanese as the primary language for the first broadcast and Korean for the subsequent one. This initiative resulted in the formation of a dedicated Korean-language channel that developed content specifically for Korean audiences, while news was predominantly delivered in Japanese and subsequently translated into Korean.

There were concerted efforts to maintain traditional Korean culture through various educational and entertainment programs, some of which garnered positive reception from Japanese listeners. Nevertheless, the growth of Korean broadcasting was curtailed by the onset of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, as radio became a means for the Governor-General’s administration to galvanize nationalistic sentiments.

English - Han Seong-jun, Im Bang-ul, Lee Hwa-jung, Jeong Jeong-ryeol, Park Nok-ju, and Kim So-hee appeared on Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station Korean - 경성방송국에 출연한 한성준·임방울·이화중선·정정렬·박녹주·김소희

In 1941, with Japan intensifying its military engagement in the Pacific War, the Tokyo Broadcasting Corporation refined its radio offerings by focusing on immediate news reporting, much of which was designed to propagate militaristic and imperialistic narratives. Radio became an essential tool in sustaining the wartime governance framework. A notable event transpired in December 1942, when several individuals were apprehended for secretly tuning into the prohibited Voice of America shortwave broadcasts at the Kaesong Broadcasting Station, resulting in the temporary halt of the second broadcast in June 1943.

Discussion on the duration of the Broadcasting Station

The Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station's timeline is unclear due to its ongoing operations through various changes, rather than a clear closure and reopening, resulting in differing interpretations of its post-liberation history.

The U.S. Military Government initially took control of the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station, including JODK, integrating it into the Public Information Department while the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications managed broadcasting technology and facilities, as per Military Government Ordinance No. 64 on March 29, 1946. The station was restructured into a broadcasting department and reestablished as a station in October of the same year.

The timeline of Japanese control over the broadcasting station is crucial. After liberation on August 15, the Japanese military occupied the station on August 17 for security until September 8. On September 15, following the dismissal of the Government-General of Korea's directors by the U.S. Commander, Japanese officials resigned, leading to the full transfer of the Korean Broadcasting Association to Korean management under U.S. Military Government oversight.

An additional criterion for evaluating the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station's call sign 'JODK' is its duration of use. The call sign KBS was first used with the regular broadcasting system on October 18, 1946. Before this, broadcast schedules were known only to staff, and a 15-minute quarter system later required a call sign after each segment. The lengthy English call sign KBS (Korea Key Station of the Korean Broadcasting System) was used. Additionally, the call sign 'HL' was assigned on September 3, 1947, during the International Radiocommunication Conference and began broadcasting in Korea on October 1, 1947 (Korean Broadcasting Association, 1997).

While there are various views on the timeline of the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station's operation, the author suggests September 15, 1945, when the Joseon Broadcasting Association and Gyeongseong Central Broadcasting Station were fully transferred to Korean control, as the definitive reference point.

Negative evaluation of Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station

There is both negative and positive of the evaluation of the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station.

Critical perspectives question the classification of Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station as the origin of broadcasting in Korea, primarily due to its establishment being a product of Japan's colonial agenda rather than a reflection of Korean initiative. This colonial context underpins the argument against recognizing Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station as a legitimate Korean broadcasting entity.

Initiated by Japanese broadcasting professionals and utilizing Japanese technology, Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station served as a tool for the exploitation of the Korean Peninsula during the colonial era, with its initial audience comprising government officials and Japanese merchants aligned with colonial interests.

A scene from the Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station broadcasting a song in the 1930s.

Park Ki-seong (박기성) (1985) identifies several characteristics of radio broadcasting as a mechanism of colonial control, including its role in implementing colonial policies, undermining Korean culture, facilitating mass persuasion, showcasing Japanese cultural superiority, creating a market for Japanese broadcasting, and fostering internal unity to support Japan's militaristic expansion.

Consequently, there is a prevailing argument that Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station should not be regarded as a Korean broadcasting station, with the date of September 3, 1947, when Korea received its call sign 'HL' from the International Radiocommunication Conference, being proposed as the true inception of Korean broadcasting.

Positive evaluation of Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station

Conversely, some individuals view Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station positively, noting its significant contributions despite being established by the Japanese. It advanced broadcasting technology, promoted a standardized Korean language, supported children's emotional development through songs, preserved traditional music like Aak and Pansori, and laid the groundwork for the evolution of broadcast content, including dramas.

Unfortunately, numerous recordings produced by Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station from its inception until the 1940s were either lost or destroyed during the Korean War.

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The History of Korean Male Groups – From Yeonhee Professional Singers’ Quartet to BTS -> Pt. 3/? (Rewrite)

In my previous post, I noted the absence of a clearly defined "first" male musical ensemble in Korea prior to liberation, with both the Yeonhee Professional Quartet and the 'Youth Member' frequently recognized as early contributors. These two groups exhibit notable similarities and play pivotal roles in the historical narrative of male musical ensembles in Korea.

The documentation for the Yeonhee Professional Quartet is considerably more comprehensive than that for the 'Youth Member' during the 1920s and 1930s, with surviving information favouring the former. Consequently, the Yeonhee Professional Quartet is often acknowledged as the first male ensemble in Korea to operate under an official name, predating the 'Youth Member' group.

The Yeonhui Professional Quartet is distinguished as the inaugural male group in Korea to possess an official team name, consisting of students from Yonhui College, which is the predecessor of Yonsei University.

Before delving into the specifics of the Yeonhui Professional Quartet, I will provide background information on the College itself.

*Note - Yeonhee College has undergone various name changes and spellings, including Yonhui, Yeonhui, Yonhee, and Yonsei, with Yonsei being its current name.

Yonsei University (연세대학교)

In my earlier post, I provided a brief overview of the incorporation of Western cultural aspects, including architecture and music, into Asia, specifically analyzing their assimilation within the frameworks of China, Japan, and Korea. I will now shift my attention to the historical context and background of Yonsei University (연세대학교), if you want to know more about the whole history of Yonsei University I added the link to the wiki.

Yonhui College and what it looked like in 1918 which is still used today.

Background

Yonsei University (연세대학교; 延世大學校), a distinguished private institution located in Seoul, South Korea, is deeply rooted in Christian principles. Established in January 1957 through the amalgamation of Yonhi College (연희전문학교; 延禧專門學校) and Severance Union Medical College (세브란스 의과대학; 세브란스 醫科大學), its origins trace back to the 1920s.

Yonhui College, founded in 1915 as Chosun Christian College (조선기독교대학; 朝鮮基督教大學),was among the earliest modern educational establishments in Korea, while Severance Union Medical College evolved from Gwanghyewon (광혜원; 廣惠院), the nation's first modern medical institution, established in 1885. The university's name, "Yonsei," reflects its heritage, combining elements from both founding colleges.

Photo 1 - Underwood Hall of Yonsei College seen from below (1939). Photo 2 - Underwood Hall, which houses administrative offices (2017).

Yonhui College, which succeeded Gyeongsin School, played a pivotal role in the formation of Yonsei University alongside Severance Hospital. Initially established as Joseon Christian School on March 5, 1915, it was reconstituted as Yonhui College, a private institution, on April 7, 1917.

During the latter part of the Japanese colonial era, in April 1944, the institution was seized under the guise of enemy property, leading to the expulsion of Korean administrators and faculty by the Japanese Government-General of Korea, and it was subsequently renamed Gyeongseong Industrial Management College.

Following Korea's liberation on August 15, 1945, the institution was elevated to university status and officially renamed Yonsei University.

History:

Beginnings (1885–1916)

Yonsei University Medical School has its roots in the establishment of Gwanghyewon on April 10, 1885, recognized as Korea's first modern hospital to implement Western medical practices.

Founded by American Protestant missionary Horace Newton Allen, the institution was renamed Chejungwon (제중원; 濟衆院), meaning "House of Universal Helpfulness," on April 26. In response to various challenges, Canadian Oliver R. Avison took over management on July 16, 1893. Initially supported by the Korean government, the hospital faced financial difficulties during the First Sino-Japanese War and the Gabo reforms (갑오개혁) in 1894, resulting in its complete oversight by the church.

The Yonsei College flag flutters in the wind in 1939.

In 1899, Avison attended a missionary conference in New York City, where he highlighted medical efforts in Korea, attracting the interest of philanthropist Louis Severance, who made substantial contributions to new facility construction, leading to the hospital's renaming as Severance Hospital.

Although primarily a hospital, Chejungwon (later Severance Hospital) also focused on medical education, enrolling its first class of 16 medical students in 1886, a year after its inception. By 1899, it achieved independent status as a medical school, and in 1912, increased collaboration among various missionary groups resulted in its rebranding as Severance Union Medical College in 1913.

The broader history of Yonsei University begins with the founding of Chosun Christian College on March 5, 1915, by American Protestant missionary Horace Grant Underwood, who was sent by the church. Underwood served as the first president, with Avison as vice president, and the college was initially located at the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association), commencing courses in April with 60 students and 18 faculty members.

During WW I & II

On August 22, 1910, Japan annexed Korea via the Japan–Korea Treaty. In 1911, Governor-General Terauchi Masatake enacted the Ordinance on Chosun Education (조선교육령; 朝鮮敎育令), followed by regulations in 1915 that aimed to suppress private education, requiring all schools to obtain approval from the governor-general and conduct instruction in Japanese.

Chejungwon (Gwanghyewon) inside Yonsei University campus, restored to its current form in the 1980s (2009).

Severance Union College struggled to meet these regulations, leading to changes in policies, curriculum, faculty expansion, and clarification of its governance. It gained recognition as a professional medical school on May 14, 1917. In 1922, Governor-General Makoto Saito's Revised Ordinance on Chosun Education (개정조선교육령) imposed stricter faculty qualifications, prompting Severance to hire more faculty with degrees from accredited institutions. By 1923, Severance regained the authority to confer medical licenses to graduates without a state exam, a privilege lost since 1912. In March 1934, the Japanese Ministry of Education validated Severance by allowing its graduates to practice medicine across Japanese territories.

In 1934, Oh Geung Seon (오긍선; 吳兢善) became Severance's first Korean president, marking a significant milestone in the institution's history.

Ordinance in front of Underwood Hall (1939)

The 1915 and 1922 ordinances greatly impacted Chosun Christian College, which aspired to be recognized as a college but was classified as a "professional school" due to the 1915 Ordinance prohibiting Korean private colleges. It later became Yonhui College, evolving into a university with six departments, while facing curriculum restrictions that banned courses in Korean history, geography, and the Bible outside theology. The missionary council criticized Japan's strict regulations compared to its private schools.

After the March First Independence Movement in 1919, Japan's control over Korea eased, as shown by the 1922 Ordinance, which lifted strict oversight of educational content and allowed Yonhui to include Christian programs and the Bible in its curriculum, while still requiring Japanese literature. Korean history was rebranded as Eastern History, and the Korean language was incorporated when possible.

Post-1922, Yonhui discontinued its Department of Agriculture after its first cohort graduated, and efforts to reinstate it were largely unsuccessful, though a training centre for agricultural education was established.

Yonhee College campus (1939).

Yonhui had an open policy for admitting non-Christians, allowing Christian students to influence them. However, in the late 1930s, Japan intensified its assimilation efforts in Korea under Governor-General Jirō Minami, implementing policies like Sōshi-kaimei and enforcing Shinto practices while recruiting Koreans for the military.

The 1938 Ordinance on Chosun Education mandated Shinto adoption, reduced Korean language instruction, and emphasized Japanese studies. Yonhui resisted by introducing Korean language courses in late 1938, but by March 1940, it was forced to adopt Japanese studies.

English classes were restricted due to deteriorating U.S.-Japan relations, leading to a ban on English coursework. In 1938, President H.H. Underwood accepted Shinto practices to keep Yonhui open, while pressure from governors-general resulted in the loss of U.S. financial support, worsening the institution's financial situation.

Photo 1 - Lee Han Yeol Memorial The June Democratic Struggle began on June 9, with student organizations mobilizing for protests on June 10. Lee Han-yeol, a Yonsei University student, was critically injured by a tear gas grenade and became a symbol of the protests. He died on July 5, shortly after the government met public demands. His national funeral on July 9 drew over 1.6 million mourners, and he was buried at the May 18th National Cemetery. 1987: When the Day Comes (2017) Korean movie based on the true story, and focuses on the events that led up to the June Democratic Uprising in Korea caused by his death.

At first, sang Hymns, School songs, and Cheer songs

This is where it might become a bit confusing for some as it mentions other songs and Album Numbers that might not make sense to how its apart of the History Korean Male Groups, but it does is some way.

The official debut song of the Yeonhee College Choir was the Yeonhee College cheer song and school song recorded on the Columbia SP Album (Album number 40358) in September 1932. In other words, they were not a male vocal team singing popular songs from the beginning. So, at first, the team’s name was written on the album as Yonhee College's quartet.

Those who sang hymns and school songs on campus released ‘Watermill’ and ‘Farmer's Song’ in September 1932, following ‘Idiot Tour of Seoul’, an adaptation of a song by foreign composer Smith, and ‘Let's Play’, a black folk song (Columbia Records, Album Number 40359). The folk song SP (Colombia Records, Album Number 40361) containing, was released under the same team’s name. So, there is more than one Yeonhee Quartet.

Yeonhee Professional Orchestra (연희전문사중창단)

Yeonhee Professional Quartet, Vocal Quartet, Ensemble or Orchestra seem to be the same but might actually be different groups, which threw me off a bit, especially with all the photos of the groups that the University had. It’s confusing since there might have been several groups with the same name at the University, and I’m not sure which male group was the first to “debut”. So, I’ll just compile all the photos and related info together. Overall Yeonhee University might have been the first to debut a Korean male group.

An orchestra/ Quartet/ Ensemble composed of students attending Yonsei University during the Japanese Colonial Period. 

The 1960s marked a notable increase in the popularity of male quartets in Korea, with groups such as the Bluebells, Mellotone Quartet, Johnny Brothers, Bongbongsa Quartet, and Arirang Brothers emerging as prominent figures in the music scene. The Bluebells, often referred to as 'Korea's first male vocal group', played a pioneering role in this genre. Nevertheless, it is important to recognize that the Yeonhee Professional Quartet, originating from Yeonhee College, had already made significant contributions to the musical landscape during the Japanese colonial era, thus laying the groundwork for future male vocal harmony ensembles in Korea.

Photo 1 - Yeonhee Professional Quartet (연희전문사중창단) (1932) Names of the people in the photo: English – Lee In-beom, Choi Seong-du, Hwang Jae-gyeong, Shin Yeong-gyun (Piano Hyun Je-myeong) Korean - 이인범, 최성두, 황재경, 신영균(피아노현재명)

Established in 1929, the Yonhui College Orchestra/Quartet conducted biannual concerts for approximately a decade, beginning in 1930, under the leadership of Hyun Je-myeong (현제명). This initiative not only showcased the talents of the ensemble but also contributed to the cultural fabric of the time, reflecting the evolving musical tastes amidst the backdrop of colonial rule. The Yeonhee Professional Quartet, recognized as the first male vocal ensemble in Korea, transitioned from performing hymns and school songs to embracing popular music, thereby broadening their appeal and influence.

Photo 2 - Yeonhui College Orchestra (연희전문사중창단) and its leader, Hyun Je-myeong (현제명) (second from the right)Date of photo taken and student’s names are unknown.

The Yeonhee Professional Quartet, comprised of tenor Lee In-beom, Choi Seong-du, bass Hwang Jae-kyung, second bass Shin Young-gyun, and pianist Hyun Je-myeong (현제명), made their debut in September 1932 with the release of Yeonhee College's "Cheering Song" (응원가) and "School Song" (교가). They subsequently produced a variety of folk songs and original compositions, including "I Am Silhyeo" or “I'm lost” (나는 실혀) and "Hahaha," (하.하.하) and gained exposure through performances on Gyeongseong Broadcasting Station (JODK) (경성방송국).

Photo 3 - Yeonhui Professional Orchestra (연희전문사중창단) (1933) Date of photo taken and student’s names are unknown.

This ‘group’ could be considered at the first Korean or Foreign-Korean co-ed group/ Orchestra, as you can see two females and two or three foreign people in the front row (I don’t think the people in the photo could be considered a “group” as it could be classed as an Orchestra, as mentioned under the photo) from Yeonhee University, but there is no information confirming that (this is my opinion).

Adding to the people that are in the picture it looks like that there are a few foreign men in the front row next to the two females on the right (shown in photo 1 above), I zoomed into the photo and you can see two or three foreigners in the photo (shown in photo 2 above), this would make sense as the University was founded by Horace Newton Allen, an American Protestant missionary and was appointed to Korea by the Presbyterian Church in the USA.

The activities of this orchestra facilitated the emergence of musicians such as Kim Seong-tae (김성태), Lee In-beom (이인범), Kim Saeng-ryeo (김생려), and Lim Dong-hyeok (임동혁).

On October 10, 1933, the Joseon Musicians Association hosted a music recital for Hyun Je-myeong and Hong Nan-pa at Ewha Haktang in Jeongdong, during which the Yonhui College Choir performed "Boat Song," composed by Hyun Je-myeong with lyrics by Lee Eun-sang (이은상), alongside "Watermill" and "Jeolumbari," both also written by Lee Eun-sang and composed by Hyun Je-myeong.

Lee Eun Sang (이은상) (Pen Name - Nosan) (1903 – 1982) was a Sijo Writer, historian and a poet and after liberation, he wrote ‘Nosan Sijo Anthology’ and ‘The Meaning of the Blue Sky’.

The lower grades of Ewha Hakdang, in the 1910s. Ewha Haktang (이화학당; 梨花學堂) in Jeongdong now Ewha Woman’s University, was founded/ established in 1886 by Mary F. Scranton a female American missionary.

“I'm lost” (나는 실혀) and "Hahaha," (하.하.하)

In April 1933, the Yeonhee Professional Quartet (연희전문사중창단) produced a sound recording for Columbia Records that included "Hahaha" (하.하.하), an adaptation of a work by the foreign composer Crown, as well as "I am Silheo" or "I’m Lost" (나는 실혀), composed by Sherborne (셜본이). Interestingly, the album attributes the arrangement to Ji Gong-bo, who is believed to be a foreign arranger who is specified on the album, a practice that is quite rare.

I couldn’t find anything on composers Crown and or Sherborne only that it’s a school in the UK, and couldn’t find anything on Ji Gong-bo as well?

‘I am lost’ (나는실혀)/ ‘Ha.Ha.Ha’ (하.하.하) – Vinyl Record Front.

This phonograph album marks the debut of the Yeonhui Professional Quartet, recognized as Korea's first male vocal ensemble, as they earnestly began performing popular songs across various genres. The album signifies their transition from academic life to a professional career as a vocal group. Notably, a photograph exists of the quartet alongside Professor Hyun Je-myeong (Photo 1 shown below), who accompanied them on piano during a broadcast on Gyeongseong Broadcasting Radio (JODK) (경성방송국) shortly after the album's release (as already mentioned above).

Following their initial release, the quartet produced several notable recordings, including "Yuwangmin's Song" (유랑민의 노래) and "Joseon's Song" (조선의 노래) in August 1933 (album number 40450), as well as "Mungteongguri Jangga-ga" (멍텅구리 장가가요) and "Goodbye" (굿빠이) in September 1934 (Colombia Records, album number 40536). In January 1935, they continued their output with "My Wife Sleeping" (낫잠자는 마누라) and "Sapsaegae" (삽살개). During this period, the ensemble was still referred to as the Yeonhui Professional Quartet.

In April 1935, the group rebranded as the ‘Yeonjeon Quartet’, and by December 1936, they released "Jeolleumbali" (절늠발이) composed by Hyun Je-myeong, which represents their final known album release. The phonograph records produced by the quartet are now regarded as rare artifacts, making them difficult to encounter in contemporary collections.

Included Songs:

The two song that were on the vinyl that were sung by the Yeonhee Professional Quartet.

Yeonhee Professional Quartet Members:

The only photo that has names attached to them is Photo 1: Lee In Beom (이인범), Choi Seong Du (최성두), Hwang Jae-gyeong (황재경), Shin Yeong-gyun (신영균) (Piano Hyun Je-myeong) (피아노현재명). I will briefly talk about him and the other members here but will go into detail about them separately in future posts.

Hyeon Je Myeong (현제명; 玄濟明)

Hyun Je Myeong (December 8 , 1902 – October 16, 1960) (His pen name is Hyeonseok and Japanese name is Kuroyama Saimei) was a pianist , violinist , tenor singer , song lyricist , song composer , and arranger during the Japanese colonial period in South Korea. He was included in the list of 708 pro-Japanese collaborators announced in 2002, the list of people scheduled to be included in the Dictionary of Pro-Japanese Collaborators by the Institute for Research in Collaborationist Activities published in 2008, and the list of 704 pro-Japanese collaborators announced by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on Pro-Japanese Collaborators in 2009. In the second half of 2008 (No. 43) of the academic journal 'Korean History Citizen Lecture', a special feature commemorating the 60th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of Korea, titled 'People who founded the Republic of Korea', he was selected as one of the 32 people who laid the foundation for the founding of the country in the culture, religion, and media sectors.

Lee In Beom (이인범; 李仁範)

Lee In Beom (1914 – 1978) was a musician and was a director of the Korean Opera Company, Professor of Yonsei University College of Music. Was a member of the Yonhui Professional Quartet, he toured the country twice a year, once in the spring and once in the fall. He participated in the Gyeongseong Welfare Chamber Orchestra, a pro- Japanese music group that toured the country at the end of the Japanese colonial period to play music of the times and encourage support for the war. As a result, he was selected in the music category of the list of people to be included in the Dictionary of Pro-Japanese Figures published by the Institute for Research in Collaborationist Activities in 2008.

Choi Seong Du (최성두; 崔聖斗)

No photos of just him like Lee In Beom, Hyun Je Myeong other than being in this group photo exist that I could find, I could only find information on him.

Choi Seong-du was a clarinet and piano player. Born in Seoncheon, North Pyongan Province.  Graduated from Sungjeon College and Yonhee College. He worked with Lee In-beom (이인범), Jang Myeong-ho (장명호), and Cha Hyeong-gi (차형기) under the guidance of Hyun Je-myeong (현제명).

Hwang Jae Gyeong (황재경; 黃材景)

No photos of just him like Lee In Beom, Hyun Je Myeong other than being in this group photo exist that I could find, I could only find information on him. I hope this information is for the write Hwang Jae-gyeong as his name when searching came up with more than one person with the same name.

Hwang Jae-gyeong was a flutists and arranger (popular singer) and was a member of the Yonjeon Music Club during the Japanese colonial period. He performed at a concert hosted by the Christian Youth Association on November 27, 1926, and worked with Cha Hyeong-gi , Choi Seong-du , and Han In-hwan under the guidance of Hyun Je-myeong

Shin Yeong Gyun (신영균)

Couldn’t find any information or photos of just him like Lee In Beom, Hyun Je Myeong other than being in this group photo.

I’m not shore which person in this photo is Shin Yeong-gyun, Choi Seong-du or Hwang Jae-gyeong

I didn’t realise this until I read a few of their wiki pages that some of them were on the list of 708 pro-Japanese collaborators during the Japanese Occupation, I thought that one of the reasons that he was mentioned so much and that he a lot of information was because he was very famous composer and that he worked at the Yonsei University, they are probably one of the reasons why? I feel like (in my opinion) that Yeonhui Professional Orchestra/ Quartet (연희전문사중창단), might not be popular or be mentioned today as the “first” male group is because Hyun Je-myeong, Lee In Beom were pro-Japanese, and that 3 out of 5 of the members having information both in a good or bad way.

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The History of Korean Male Groups – From Yeonhee Professional Singers’ Quartet to BTS -> Pt. 2/? (Rewrite)

Like the experiences of the 60s-80s in Korea (I previously discussed the film Emergency Act 19 (긴급조치 19호) in another post that talks about the censorship.), the Japanese Colonial Rule era saw significant music censorship that impacted Korean culture, especially its musical landscape. Japanese authorities imposed strict measures to suppress Korean national identity and promote Japanese interests, harming both traditional and popular music.

This censorship included regulating song content and performances, banning many Korean songs with nationalistic themes or critiques of the regime, while promoting Japanese music and songs aligned with their cultural goals.

Despite these oppressive measures, some Korean musicians skilfully incorporated traditional elements into their work, preserving their cultural heritage while navigating censorship challenges.

Western Music in Japan

It might seem a bit off in the context of the history of Korean music, but just like today’s K-pop acts, earlier Korean artists drew a lot of inspiration from Western music legends like The Beatles. This influence came about when Western culture started blending into Asia, especially since many Asian countries had been pretty isolated for a long time. If you check out historical Asian dramas or anime, you’ll notice a mix of Western and Asian architectural styles. Plus, if you ever visit or live in places like China, Japan, or Korea, you’ll spot plenty of Western-style buildings that have stood the test of time.

Zhongyang Street from south, Harbin, 1920s (哈尔滨中央大街). Formerly known as Kitayskaya ("Chinese") Street, Zhongyang Street (中央大街) was and still is the busiest street in today's Daoli District. In the distance, Songhua River and the railway bridge. Photo by Moravius on flickr An example of Western architectural style in China, which is still there and looks the same today.

Yonhui College and what it looked like in 1918 which is still used today. This college, which will be discussed later, plays a significant role in the history of Korean music.

In the early 20th century, Japan experienced a notable introduction of Western melodies, particularly during the Meiji era (1868-1912), which was characterized by the country's swift modernization and embrace of Western cultural influences. This period facilitated the creation of numerous songs that incorporated Western musical elements, reflecting a significant shift in Japan's musical landscape.

Prominent Western classical composers such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Franz Schubert, Edvard Grieg, and Claude Debussy gained popularity in Japan during this time. Their works were disseminated through performances by Western musicians, the efforts of music educators, and the establishment of institutions dedicated to Western music education, thereby enriching Japan's musical repertoire and fostering a deeper appreciation for Western classical music.

How Korean Male Groups evolved over time.

Male groups in Korean music history have undergone significant changes and developments over the years. These groups were typically formed in two distinct ways, with one focusing on vocal harmony and the other placing a strong emphasis on performance.

Prior to the 1970s, the majority of male ensembles (a group of musicians, actors, or dancers who perform together) prioritized harmony in their music. However, a shift occurred in the 1980s, leading to the emergence of groups that placed a greater emphasis on performance and showmanship. This shift was particularly evident in the dance music genre, and these groups can be considered as the precursors to the modern-day 'boy groups' that are prevalent in the industry today.

The evolution of male groups in Korean music history can be traced through various decades, starting from the period before liberation (1910 – 1945), through the 60s, 70s, 80s, and early 90s, and continuing into the mid-90s, 2000s, and up to the 2010s. Each era brought about its own unique changes and developments in the male group landscape, reflecting the evolving tastes and preferences of the audience as well as the broader cultural and societal shifts taking place in Korea. By examining the trajectory of male groups over these different time periods, we can gain a deeper understanding of the factors that have shaped the history of Korean male groups and their significance in the music industry.

Before Liberation - 1900s:

The historical evolution of male musical ensembles in Korea before liberation lacks a definitive "first" group, with both the Yeonhee Professional Orchestra (연희전문사중창단) and the 'Youth Member' (청년회원) frequently cited as early contributors. These ensembles share significant similarities and play crucial roles in the history of male musical groups in Korea, regardless of their status as the inaugural ensemble. The available documentation for the Yeonhee Professional Orchestra is notably more extensive than that for the 'Youth Member,' which is often referenced in academic literature.

The Yeonhee Professional Orchestra is recognized as the first male ensemble in Korea to operate under an official name, predating the 'Youth Member' group. While the 'Youth Member' is thought to have emerged around 1923, there is a lack of substantial evidence, such as photographs or audio recordings, to substantiate its official recognition. Although this group is believed to have performed the <Hakdo Song> (학도가) in 1923, the complexities of its activities during the Japanese colonial period hinder the verification of its existence and influence on the musical scene of that time.

I did a bit more research and think I may have discovered the audio for <Hakdo Song> (학도가), though I could be mistaken. When translating the title from Korean to English, it could result in two different Romanized versions: Hakdog Song (학도가) and Hakdogga (학도가), but they are written the same way in Korean.

This is the video of the supposed song below and also the link to the lyrics to the song i found in the blog - Link

In contrast, the Yeonhee Professional Orchestra boasts more thorough documentation from the 1920s and 1930s. This male ensemble primarily consisted of students from Yeonhee College, which later evolved into Yonsei University.

The formal establishment of the Yeonhee Professional Orchestra as an official entity underscores its importance and acknowledgment within the music industry, distinguishing it from the less substantiated 'Youth Member.' The detailed records associated with the Yeonhee Professional Orchestra facilitate a clearer understanding of its contributions and significance during that historical period.

*Note - Yeonhee College/ University changed names and have had different spellings: Yonhui, Yeonhui, Yonhee and Yonsei.

‘Youth Member’(청년회원)

Given the scarcity of information, I will strive to provide clarity regarding the song they reportedly performed, known as "Hakdo Song" (학도가) from 1923. I will also include links to the sources where I discovered this information, noting that their name has appeared frequently over the years, yet details remain limited.

The initial reference to 'Youth Member' within the historical context of Korean male groups occurs prior to liberation, specifically associated with the 'Yeonhui Professional Quartet.' The connection between these two entities arises from the possibility that 'Youth Member' may represent the earliest formation of a Korean male group. However, the lack of substantial information regarding this particular group limits our understanding, as the available records primarily focus on their musical contributions.

The mention of 'Youth Member' alongside the 'Yeonhui Professional Quartet' highlights a significant yet obscure aspect of Korean musical history. While 'Youth Member' is posited as potentially the first Korean male group, the scarcity of detailed documentation about its activities and influence restricts a comprehensive analysis. Consequently, the historical narrative surrounding these groups remains largely incomplete, with much of the focus directed towards their musical output rather than their broader cultural impact.

Album Photo Parents' Grace Song / Student Song. Official Song (Kwonhakga) Album Front, Collection of Lee Kyung-ho

The phonograph record in question is a Taegeukpyo release by the Nippon Gramophone Company, dating back to approximately 1923, and features three distinct musical pieces: "Parents' Grace Song," (부모의 은덕가) "Hakdoga," (학도가), and "Kwonhakga." (권학가).

This record has sparked discussions regarding the classification of changga (love song) as a form of popular music. Notably, "Hakdoga," the first changga featured on the album, holds significant historical value as it encapsulates the evolution of popular music during the Enlightenment Period, thereby serving as a crucial artifact for understanding the cultural dynamics of that era.

The first song confirmed on a record

Despite the existence of numerous records, the earliest confirmed song on a record is <Hakdoga>, attributed to 'Youth Member,' which is believed to be the first male group in Korea. This song was released by Nippon Gramophone Co., Ltd. (日本コロムビア株式会社) around 1921, catalogued as record number 6217.

The true identity of this album remains unverified. The only known version is a reissue from approximately 1923, which is exceedingly rare, with only one or two copies in existence. The recording features a choir format, and rather than listing a specific artist, it simply credits 'Youth Member.' The initial designation as 'Christian Youth Member' suggests that the performance was by a member of the YMCA rather than a professional vocalist. The introduction of the song invites listeners to "Let's sing a student song," mirroring the format used in Edison Records in the United States.

For some reason, finding the right company proved to be difficult, but I truly hope this is the one, particularly since it was the only option available when the song was released. Information about the company that the song was released by below.

Nippon Columbia Co., Ltd., established on October 1, 1910, in Kawasaki-cho, Kanagawa Prefecture, originally operated as the Japan Gramophone Trading Company, marking the inception of Japan's first online music service. From its founding, it maintained a partnership with the American Columbia Record Company, facilitating the import and export of both music and gramophone technology. The company underwent a transformation through Ichichu Kogyo and was rebranded as Japan Columbia in 1946.

'Student' (학도가) is a Japanese version of 'Railroad Window Song' (철도창가) with only the lyrics changed

The authorship of the lyrics for ‘학도가’ remains uncertain, with some attributing it to Choi Nam-seon (최남선) and others to Kim In-sik (김인식), recognized as the first Western musician. However, these claims lack definitive evidence, and there exists a considerable amount of misinformation regarding the composer. Notably, ‘학도가’ is essentially a reworked version of the Japanese song 'Railroad Window Song' (철도창가), which was released in 1900 during the Meiji era.

The lyrics of ‘학도가’ reflect themes of enlightenment, although there are variations from the contemporary rendition. The version performed by Myeong Guk-hwan (명국환) retains the original lyrics but condenses the content from six verses to four. In contrast, Go Woon-bong's (고운봉) interpretation incorporates Juja’s exhortation to learn (勸學文), derived from ‘Gwonhakga’ (권학가), further illustrating the evolution of the song's message over time.

Kim In-sik/ Kim In Hak (김인식)

Born in Pyongyang in 1885 and passed away in 1963, he is recognized as the inaugural Western music educator in the nation. I'll go more into detail about him in a future post.

Choi Nam-seon (최남선)

Choi Nam-seon was a prominent figure in the Japanese colonial era, recognized for his roles as a writer, journalist, historian, and pro-Japanese anti-nationalist. Born in 1890 and passing away in 1957, he pursued his studies in Japan, subsequently launching magazines and fostering a new cultural movement through his literary contributions. He was instrumental in the creation of a Korean dictionary and authored the "Declaration of Independence" during the March 1st Movement. Additionally, he was involved with the Gyemyeong Club, which focused on the study of Korean culture and history, and he served on the Joseon History Compilation Committee. From 1935 onward, he became increasingly active in pro-Japanese initiatives, promoting Japanese Shinto and supporting student soldiers while advocating the notion that Korea and Japan share a common cultural heritage through his "cultural mobilization theory." I'll go more into detail about him in a future post.

A scholar with an enlightened character

Gwonhakga serves as an enlightenment song that promotes the value of education. Unlike typical phonograph records that feature a single song on each side, this particular album stands out by presenting Gwonhakga alongside Hakdoga on the same side of the record.

The song's lyrics reference Juja's work, (勸學文), emphasizing the fleeting nature of youth and the challenges of learning, with the admonition that "young people are easy to grow old, but learning is difficult, so do not treat time lightly even for a moment." (少年易老學難成一寸光陰不可輕). This serves as a cautionary message to the youth regarding the importance of their studies, and these lines were subsequently echoed in Gounbong's ‘학도가’.

This is the video of the supposed song below and also the link to the lyrics to the song i found in the blog – Link Video - https://youtu.be/RrHfwmd1qU4 The song which has been sung since the Japanese colonial period, also has the same melody as the ‘Student Song’ below.

What the ‘Student Song’ might mean - The 'Student Song' emphasizes the importance of youth and education, urging students to recognize their role in shaping history. It highlights a young boy's proficiency in mathematics and praises the remarkable Ilchon Gwangumdo. The imagery of jade hidden in lush mountains suggests that potential must be refined to reveal its brilliance, while the fallen tree symbolizes the necessity of sacrifice for growth. The song calls upon diligent students to remember their responsibilities, as the dawn moon sets and the bright Dongcheon Joil illuminates their path. Ultimately, it reiterates the significance of youth in the ongoing narrative of history.

‘Parents' Grace Song’ praising the grace of parents

The song titled "Parents' Grace Song" (부모의 은덕가) was initially released by Nippon Gramophone Co., Ltd. in approximately 1921, catalogued as record number 6216. The original recording has not survived, but historical documentation indicates that the title was originally inscribed in Chinese characters as "父母恩德 (Parents' Grace Song)," distinct from its reprinted version labelled as record number K200.

The lyrics of this song bear resemblance to contemporary songs performed on Parents' Day, emphasizing the virtues of parental kindness and the importance of expressing gratitude. Its emotional resonance remains significant today, and the fact that modern Parents' Day songs reference "Parents' Kindness Song" (부모의 은덕가) suggests that this piece has been preserved through oral tradition for many years.

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Gesang School (i.e. kisaeng school), 1904

From Cornell University Library, with the following description: 

Korean kisaengs, or singing girls, dressed up for singing and dancing. Korean kisaeng is special women’s occupation that exists for helping parties enjoyable by singing and dancing. Their social position was among the lowest in the traditional Korean class system. Their daughters also became kisaengs and their sons became slaves. The art of entertaining of the kisaeng is analogous to Japanese geisha. These professional entertainers were highly trained in the arts of poetry, music, dance, and other forms of social or artistic diversion. The picture is somewhat curious. It was taken in front of a modern, western-style brick building, with a very peculiar Korean screen as the backdrop. 

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Korea: Kisaeng entertainer and courtesan, c. 1900

Kisaeng (also spelled gisaeng), sometimes called ginyeo (기녀), refers to female Korean entertainers similar to the Japanese geisha and the ancient Greek hetaerae. Kisaeng were not prostitutes but, rather, artists. Although many casual observers mistook kisaeng as prostitutes in Korea, kisaeng entertained aristocracy or royalty, such as the yangbans and kings, as artists.

First appearing in the Goryeo Dynasty, kisaeng served in the government as entertainers, required to fill a variety of roles. In addition to entertainment, those roles included medical care and needlework. Many worked in the royal court, but they also served throughout the country. They received careful training, frequently achieving accomplished in the fine arts, poetry, and prose, although nobility often ignored their talents due to their inferior social status.

Kisaeng, both historic and fictional, play an important role in Korean conceptions of the traditional culture of the Joseon Dynasty. Some of Korea’s oldest and most popular stories, such as the tale of Chunhyang, feature kisaeng as heroines. Although the names of most real kisaeng have been forgotten, history records a few for outstanding attributes, such as talent or loyalty. Kisaeng Hwang Jin-i represents the most famous.

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