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How Pfizer’s Vaccine Works

The German company BioNTech partnered with Pfizer to develop and test a coronavirus vaccine known as BNT162b2. A clinical trial demonstrated that the vaccine has an efficacy rate of 95 percent in preventing Covid-19.

A Piece of the Coronavirus

The SARS-CoV-2 virus is studded with proteins that it uses to enter human cells. These so-called spike proteins make a tempting target for potential vaccines and treatments.

Like the Moderna vaccine, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine is based on the virus’s genetic instructions for building the spike protein.

mRNA Inside an Oily Shell

The vaccine uses messenger RNA, genetic material that our cells read to make proteins. The molecule — called mRNA for short — is fragile and would be chopped to pieces by our natural enzymes if it were injected directly into the body. To protect their vaccine, Pfizer and BioNTech wrap mRNA in oily bubbles made of lipid nanoparticles.

Because of their fragility, the mRNA molecules will quickly fall apart at room temperature. Pfizer is building special containers with dry ice, thermal sensors and GPS trackers to ensure the vaccines can be transported at -94 degrees Fahrenheit to stay viable.

Entering a Cell

After injection, the vaccine particles bump into cells and fuse to them, releasing mRNA. The cell’s molecules read its sequence and build spike proteins. The mRNA from the vaccine is eventually destroyed by the cell, leaving no permanent trace.

Some of the spike proteins form spikes that migrate to the surface of the cell and stick out their tips. The vaccinated cells also break up some of the proteins into fragments, which they present on their surface. These protruding spikes and spike protein fragments can then be recognized by the immune system.

Spotting the Intruder

When a vaccinated cell dies, the debris will contain many spike proteins and protein fragments, which can then be taken up by a type of immune cell called an antigen-presenting cell.

The cell presents fragments of the spike protein on its surface. When other cells called helper T-cells detect these fragments, the helper T-cells can raise the alarm and help marshal other immune cells to fight the infection.

Making Antibodies

Other immune cells, called B-cells, may bump into the coronavirus spikes and protein fragments on the surface of vaccinated cells. A few of the B-cells may be able to lock onto the spike proteins. If these B-cells are then activated by helper T-cells, they will start to proliferate and pour out antibodies that target the spike protein.

Stopping the Virus

The antibodies can latch onto coronavirus spikes, mark the virus for destruction and prevent infection by blocking the spikes from attaching to other cells.

Killing Infected Cells

The antigen-presenting cells can also activate another type of immune cell called a killer T-cell to seek out and destroy any coronavirus-infected cells that display the spike protein fragments on their surfaces.

Remembering the Virus

The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine requires two injections, given 21 days apart, to prime the immune system well enough to fight off the coronavirus. But because the vaccine is so new, researchers don’t know how long its protection might last.

It’s possible that in the months after vaccination, the number of antibodies and killer T-cells will drop. But the immune system also contains special cells called memory B-cells and memory T-cells that might retain information about the coronavirus for years or even decades.

For more about the vaccine, see Pfizer’s Covid Vaccine: 11 Things You Need to Know.

Vaccine Timeline

January, 2020: BioNTech begins work on a vaccine after Dr. Ugur Sahin, one of the company’s founders, becomes convinced that the coronavirus will spread from China into a pandemic.

March: BioNTech and Pfizer agree to collaborate.

May: The companies launch a Phase ½ trial on two versions of a mRNA vaccine. One version, known as BNT162b2, had fewer side effects.

July 22: The Trump administration awards a $1.9 billion contract for 100 million doses to be delivered by December, with an option to acquire 500 million more doses, if the vaccine is authorized by the Food and Drug Administration.

July 27: The companies launch a Phase 2/3 trial with 30,000 volunteers in the United States and other countries, including Argentina, Brazil and Germany.

Sept. 12: Pfizer and BioNTech announce they will seek to expand their U.S. trial to 44,000 participants.

Nov. 9: Preliminary data indicates the Pfizer vaccine is over 90 percent effective, with no serious side effects. The final data from the trial shows the efficacy rate is 95 percent.

Nov. 20: Pfizer requests an emergency use authorization from the F.D.A.

Dec. 2: Britain gives emergency authorization to Pfizer and BioNTech’s vaccine, becoming the first Western country to give such an approval to a coronavirus vaccine.

Dec. 10: The F.D.A. will meet in an open session to discuss emergency authorization of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine.

Dec. 31: Pfizer expects to produce up to 50 million doses by the end of the year, and up to 1.3 billion doses in 2021. Each vaccinated person will require two doses.

Spring 2021: Vaccines by Pfizer and Moderna are expected to reach large-scale distribution in the spring.

Sources: National Center for Biotechnology Information; Nature; Florian Krammer, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. By Jonathan Corum and Carl Zimmer (The New York Times).

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Micky Papa // What’s Going On?

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Stuck on neutral

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The photo above is the closest humanity has ever come to creating Medusa. If you were to look at this, you would die instantly. 

The image is of a reactor core lava formation in the basement of the Chernobyl nuclear plant. It’s called the Elephant’s Foot and weighs hundreds of tons, but is only a couple meters across.

Oh, and regarding the Medusa thing, this picture was taken through a mirror around the corner of the hallway. Because the wheeled camera they sent up to take pictures of it was destroyed by the radiation. The Elephant’s Foot is almost as if it is a living creature.

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Star Wars: A New Hope Animotion Trailer | by Dmitry Grozov

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How to Use Electronics to Find Deep Bass

How to Use Electronics to Find Deep Bass

In this video we talk sonar, side scan and down scan and talk about perspectives of each when searching for bass while out fishing deep. We also talk about where to place a buoy when fishing offshore for bass, some good fish catch footage, and some good screen shots comparing sonar to the Structure Scan screens. More videos at

SUBSCRIBE for more awesome fishing tips! ►►

• Come Fishing with…

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Chronic Renal Disease

Progressive nephron destruction over time leads to progressive loss of renal function 

chronic renal failure is not reversible due to nephron destruction 

if all nephrons have been irreversibly damaged - known as “end stage kidney”

uraemia, polyuria, biochemical change

however less metabolic disturbance than with acute TRF (total renal failure)

Potential causes:

vascular disease 

glomerulonephritis 

diabetes 

Response of Glomeruli to damage

Endothelial cell proliferation: 

occlusion of capillary; reducing flow through glomeruli - correlates with oliguria and uraemia 

Mesangial cell proliferation: 

associated with increased matrix production

 over many years leads to sclerosis and loss of capillary lumen 

Basement membrane thickening: 

e.g. may be due to immune complexes or amyloid 

(the above are an attempt of regeneration in response to inflammation)

Capillary wall necrosis: 

usually fibrinoid; e.g. necrotising vasculitis, malignant hypertension 

 Crescent formation: 

epithelial cell proliferation; reaction to glomerular capillary damage 

severe glomerular damage only - large numbers = poor prognosis

characterises rapidly progressive disease 

serum proteins and fibrin in Bowman’s capsule cause overgrowth of the epithelial lining 

as crescent enlarges - compresses the glomerular tuft - which shrivels and becomes non-functional

once crescents are established disease type can only be determined by examining unaffected glomeruli

Next up: nephortic and nephritic syndrome

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Super Dad

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10 important Emergency/First Aid tips you may not know

Chances are, you may never encounter a serious emergency. But on the off-chance you do, knowing basic principles could save you, or someone else. It may be a little cringe-worthy, but it’s important stuff to know. (Also, kind of cool for you fiction writers out there, so you know the sorts of stuff that would really go down and how your characters should/should not respond.)

1) If something is stuck in, DO NOT PULL IT OUT. Pencil in the eye? Knife in the chest? Piece of glass in hand? With the exception of splinters in the top layer of skin, NEVER EVER EVER pull something out! It will cause the person to lose blood, or cause serious nerve damage, or other irreparable harm. Stabilize the object and wait for the ambulance. Or, if you’re too far from EMS, stabilize the object, pop the person in your car, and drive like the wind (with flashers on, of course).

2) If something is sticking out, DO NOT SHOVE IT BACK IN. Guts/intestines, eyeball, bone, you name it; if a body part is out of place, NEVER EVER EVER put it back in place. You WILL pinch nerves, trap debris, cause infection, cut off blood supply, send the person into shock, or some other horrid consequence. Putting stuff back in is a job for the pros. Stabilize whatever you can, and cover it all with a damp, sterile dressing (sterile cloth bandage with bottled/purified water will do the trick) and wait for EMS. Or, if you’re hours from help, follow the above directions and drive, baby drive! (Note: if there are guts hanging out of a person’s abdomen, and you absolutely have to drive them–ie, EMS can’t get there, you’re up the side of a mountain, etc– you need someone holding the person still at all times, in a near-fetal position.)

3) If someone is seizing out/convulsing, you do NOT try to hold them down/still. Don’t touch them at all. Just move things out of the way so they aren’t in danger of hitting anything, and put a pillow/cushion under their head. A jacket rolled up works just fine. If they are standing and start to go down in a Grand Mal seizure, you can catch them to keep them from injuring themselves in a fall, but DO NOT pin them down, grab their tongue, hold their head, etc. Just let them go. If it goes longer than 5 minutes OR the person has no previous history of epilepsy, then call 911. Stay with them til they regain consciousness.

4) That old wives’ tale to put butter on a burn? DON’T DO IT. You’ll cook your skin and give yourself an infection. Use cool water. If it blisters, you probably need a medical cream. Also, DO NOT POP THE BURN BLISTERS!!!! That’s your body’s protection from infection. You pop that, and it’s a big welcome party for all kinds of horrid bacteria. Don’t pop it, don’t butter it. Cool water and burn cream.

5) Tourniquets are only to be used in situations where you can’t get to medical help within several days. DO. NOT. TOURNIQUET. SOMEONE’S. LIMB. EVER!!!! Blood vessels that have been severed automatically shrink away from the injury, so all you need to do is apply a sterile dressing to the bloody stump or gaping wound, pile on absorbent materials and, however much it’s going to hurt, PUSH. Pressure will help clotting and stop blood from gushing out. Push as hard as you can if it’s a big artery or vein. (Though, if someone has severed an artery, chances are slim to begin with.) Tourniquets cause lasting damage and make it impossible for reattachment of severed body parts, and can result in further amputations being necessary. Plus, they don’t even always work. TOURNIQUETS ARE THE DEVIL DON’T DO IT!

6) If someone swallowed a toxic substance (pills, chemicals, plants, poisons), DO NOT make them vomit! You could cause more damage to their internal organs, esophagus, or even cause them to aspirate. If YOU accidentally swallow something toxic, don’t make yourself vomit either. Call poison control instantly, and they’ll give you individual, case-by-case instructions on what to do. Poison control hotline is 1800-222-1222. I remember it as “800, triple 2,1,triple 2.”

7) Alcohol and hydrogen peroxide are terrible for cleaning wounds. They kill everything, not just germs, so they’re killing your body’s cells, too. A wound cleaned with alcohol/hydrogen peroxide will take almost twice as long to heal as one cleaned with just a soap and water wash. The proper way to clean a minor injury is by running clean water over it, then washing with mild soap and water. Then slap on some antibiotic and a dressing if it’s still bleeding, and if not, leave it exposed to the air to heal. If it’s too bad/deep to be cleaned with just water and soap, it needs professional medical attention.

 8) If you find someone lying on the ground, DO NOT MOVE THEM. They could have fallen and may have a spinal injury. Check to see if they’re breathing. If not, you can roll them over to begin CPR (no need to check pulse– if they’re not breathing, start CPR right away; this is the current ARC guideline). That’s it. Don’t move them from where they were found, especially if it’s a high-risk situation, like a car accident, skiing accident, fall from a great height, etc. Look around, take a minute to be Sherlock Holmes, and look at what may have caused them to end up like this. If there’s even a possibility of spinal injury, don’t touch them except to perform CPR/AED when necessary!

9) If the scene is still a dangerous situation, don’t be a hero. You won’t be helping anyone by getting electrocuted by that live wire, or hit by still oncoming traffic. You’re only going to make more victims for EMS and rescue workers to save. It’s not being cowardly; it’s not immoral. You can’t help someone if you get yourself killed or injured in the process. Survey the scene, and if it’s noticeably dangerous, stay back. Call 911, obviously, and stay nearby to continue reporting to them, but don’t be a martyr.

10) Above all, if you start getting sick or dizzy while helping someone, step back. Take a minute. It’s not going to help them if you barf on them or pass out. Compose yourself, then come back. There’s no shame in not being able to handle emergency situations. It’s hard, it’s gross, and it can mess you up. Take care of you, then take care of others. And if, after assisting at/being part of an emergency, you have a hard time dealing with the memories or emotions, seek help. It’s extremely common to have PTSD after helping at an emergency scene. There is nothing wrong with that; get the help you need.

Stay safe, everybody!

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THIS is the person trump claimed is going to “protect America,”…… this should honestly scare anyone who has a sense of basic human decency,  the president of the U.S should not be willingly letting people like this back into the real world. 

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Josh Wilson // Bronze 56,000

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These are # to call ur US REPS & SENATORS 1. Call both numbers! 2. Retweet 2 every resistance AMERICAN. 3. Support #TheResistance 2 Trump!

To call your senator call 202-224-(last 4 digits above)

It’s easy the person answering will be polite tell them what you’d like them to do…

Ex. I’m calling to request EXZ SENATOR to support requiring all of P.E’s cabinet members to go through their full FBI back ground checks (which has been standard for FORTY YEARS!) prior to holding hearings!

Be polite…be professional…if you want them to take you seriously act serious.

Next…ONLY call YOUR senators/rep! Other senators and reps DON’T care about you and your opinion if they don’t represent you.

Even if you didn’t vote for them if they are in office they REPRESENT YOU! Make sure they know HOW you expect to BE REPRESENTED!

Phronsie can I email or send a fax…sure but phone calls TAKE UP MORE OF THEIR TIME. PHONE calls are more powerful. If a senators office phones are ringing off the hook because constituents are calling to voice the actions they want taken said senator KNOWS this is a HUGE deal. If they don’t act in accordance with their constituents they’re likely to know that they will pay a price come the next election.

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This sums up everything I feel and so so so much more. 

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One woman delivered the perfect response to Donald Trump’s Twitter meltdown about SNL. A little louder for the people in the back, please.

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it’s that time of the year again 🎄🎅