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tlatollotl · 7 years ago

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Answer by /u/400-rabbits,

The only people who seriously subscribe to the idea of Chachapoyas as blonde and blue-eyed are racists and conspiracy theorists (with no small overlap between the two). It is not a serious idea and is not to be taken seriously. The very quote you cite from Cienza de Leon does not even describe them this way, instead noting them to simple be paler than other native groups he had encountered. He also affirms them to be indigenous, as the original text from his La crónica del Perú calls them "indios naturales," a term early/colonial Spaniards explicitly used for Native Americans:

Son estos indios naturales de Chachapoyas los más blancos y agraciados de todos cuantos yo he visto en las Indias que he andado...

Note that calling them "más blancos" (more white) does not imply that they were "white" with the connotations it has today (i.e., ethnically European), but simply acts as a descriptor of skin tone. Note also that Cienza de Leon also not calling them European, but merely that they are of a lighter skin tone then the other indigenous groups he has encountered. There is nothing here to suggest they were of European ancestry and certainly nothing about blonde hair and blue-eyes. The use of blanco/negro for skin tone, without implications about ancestry, is not uncommon in early Spanish texts, and should not be used in the same way "white" or "black" are used today. The terms can just as easily by translated as "fair/pale" or "dark/swarthy," without the burden of terms currently used to ascribe race. (Weirdly, I just had to tackle this regarding Afrocentric theories in another question.)

I also see nothing about the Chachapoyas' height in La crónica del Perú. One radiological study (Friedrich 2010) of Chachapoya area mummies estimated stature in what they determined to be adults to range from 123cm to 160cm, which is... not tall. Admittedly, estimating stature from CT scans of long bones is not ideal, but clearly these people were no giants. There were, in fact, in line with stature estimates from the region. Ubelaker and Newsom (2002) in The Backbone of History: Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere measured skeletal remains from various periods in nearby Ecuador, finding a range between 148-170cm.

Well what about mummies in the region with "red" hair? Surely such a hair color could only occur if some fair-haired Northern European had spread their genes around, right? No.

Lightening/Reddening of hair in preserved remains is a well-known post-mortem change. As my Tibbet and Carter (2008) Soil Analysis in Forensic Taphonomy note:

All hair color contains a mixture of both black-brown eumelanin and red-yellow phaeomelanin pigments, which are suspectible to differential chemical change under certain conditions. Importantly, phaeomelanin is much more stable to enviromnetal conditions than eumelanin; hence, the reactions occurring in the burial environment favor the preservation of phaeomelanin, revealing and enhancing the red-yellow color of hairs containing this pigment. (p. 129)

What about other biological evidence? Surely some evidence of errant Vikings would show up in the bones and genes, right? No.

Nystrom (2006), examining craniofacial landmarks, found that while sites associated with the Chachapoyas culture showed differences from each other, this was was best explained by the geographical distance, admixture with surrounding groups, and a general erasure of internal ethnic division among the Chachapoyas by both the Inca and later Spanish. In other words, the people of Kuelap may have seen themselves as distinct from those people up the Utcubamba river at Hueyabamba or Condores, but to outside invaders they were all Chachapoyas. On the genetic side of things, Sandoval et al. (2016) looked at other extant groups in the region, and found them to be a complex and diverse group of peoples "suggesting a high interpopulation migration between the Andes and Amazonia." Likewise, Guevara et al. (2016) using samples from extant communities in the area found historical evidence for a Chachapoyas population that was connected to, but still distinct from their neighbors, which is explained by the general population diversity of the region, it being an area where both Andean and Amazonian groups mingled, and influence from the Inca system of resettling conquered peoples. They concluded:

The genetic proﬁle of the Chachapoya indicates that populations that developed in “intermediate ecological regions” have a complex genetic composition which has been inﬂuenced by their position with regard to other civilizations in the northeast Andes.

None of these investigations came back and said, "well, turns out they're Vikings." So were does that idea come from?

Well, the idea of the Chachapoyas being non-indigenous got a boost recently with PBS's Secrets of the Dead devoting an episode to the hypothesis of a German academic (with no expertise in archaeology, let alone Andean specific training), Hans Griffhorn. He proposes that, following the 3rd Punic War, the Carthaginians were not all enslaved by the Romans, but that many of them joined Iberian Celts to flee to secret Brazilian colonies. From there they apparently decided to travel from the Brazilian coast through the Amazon to settle in the Andes, for some reason.

The documentary is terrible and uses the same toolkit that Pre-Columbian conspiracy theorists always rely upon: taking the most extreme interpretation of ambiguous ancient texts; drawing specious connections between convergent similarities in the art and architecture of American groups and the chosen Afro-Eurasian group; an insistence that the American group in question was somehow unique, distinct, or "advanced" as compared to their neighbors; a blithe disregard for the mountains of archaeological, anthropological, and historical evidence; and an underlying assumption that the peoples of the Americas somehow required an outside force to push them towards civilization. The only thing missing is some dubious linguistic analysis, but that is probably only because the Chachapoyas language is extinct. Jason Colavito has a review on his site worth reading.

Ancient Celts and Carthaginians are not Vikings though, and the idea of Andean Norsemen goes back all the way to... the mid-late 20th Century. That's when Jacques de Mahieu, a french Nazi collaborator and general proponent of Nazi racial theories, began publishing books arguing that Vikings had extensively colonized and conquered huge swathes of the Americas. Nigel Davies in his 1979 book on pre-Columbian hypotheses, Voyagers to the New World, summarizes de Mahieu's idea and their reception:

seven Viking boats, each with eighty people on board, reach Mexico in A.D. 967. Twenty-two years later these adventurers undertook a new migration and eventually reach Paraguay, after passing through Venezuela and Chile. In Paraguay, the Norsemen became the progenitors of a tribe whose sturdy womenfolk created the legend of the Amazons, and their last descendants still survive as the Guayaqui Indians. Mahieu admits that these Guayaquis are a sadly decadent breed of Vikings, since they measure only four feet, eleven inches in stature and some are cannibals. Such theories are treated as pure science fiction by leading Argentinean anthropologists, and though he has written no less than fifteen books on the subject, Mahieu has hardly proved his point.

Nicholas Goodrick-Clark, author of the 2003 Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism, and the Politics of Identity, has further summary of the ideas contained in those 15 books published by Mahieu, which posit a pan-American Viking empire. Apparently the original flotilla of Vikings conquered the Toltecs, then moved on to Venezuela and Colombia. One specific Viking leader split off to colonize Peru and found an Incan Empire whose elites were Norse. Goodrick-Clark notes Mahieu's books were published by Wildred van Oven, Goebbel's deputy who fled to Argentina and remained a committed Nazi until his death, and that Mahieu's ideas influenced Miguel Serrano, a Chilean neo-Nazi who believed a race of Aryan-Hyperboreans originally colonized the Americas and that Columbus' voyage was a ploy by the Jews to cover this up.

The idea of the Chachapoya culture and people being lost Vikings is, in short, born from Nazi racism. It is an idea that found fertile ground among the myriad pre-Columbian contact myths, legends, and conspiracy theories which have abounded ever since Europeans stumbled upon the Americas, and which are often rooted in racist ideas about the inferiority of Americans. Pop-culture has kept alive these ideas through irresponsible and pseudo-scientific works like the PBS show. These hypotheses, however, always end up breaking down under the slightest bit of scrutiny, with the actual anthropological, archaeological, and historical evidence actively arguing against such beliefs. The notion of Norse Chachapoyans has even less going for it than most of these fantastical ideas -- being essentially Nazi fanfiction -- and does not deserve a moment of your, or anyone else's, time.

#archaeology #arqueologia #Chachapoya #amazon #native american #first nations #amazon rainforest #askhistorians #reddit #history #historia

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ezatluba · 4 years ago

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When Cadaver Dogs Pick Up a Scent, Archaeologists Find Where to Dig

Recent research highlights the power of the canine nose to uncover buried remains from ancient human history.

Shiraz, a cadaver dog enlisted to hunt for archaeological remains in February at a suspected Native American burial site in Gulf Breeze, Fla.Credit...Emily Kask for The New York Times

By Cat Warren

May 19, 2020

On a sunny summer day in Croatia several years ago, an archaeologist and two dog handlers watched as two dogs, one after another, slowly worked their way across the rocky top of a wind-scoured ridge overlooking the Adriatic Sea.

Bodies had lain in beehive-shape tombs on this necropolis, part of the prehistoric hill fort of Drvišica, since the Iron Age. The two dogs, trained to detect human remains, were searching for scents that were thousands of years old.

Panda, a Belgian Malinois with a “sensitive nose,” according to her handler, Andrea Pintar, had begun exploring the circular leftovers of a tomb when she suddenly froze, her nose pointed toward a stone burial chest. This was her signal that she had located the scent of human remains.

Ms. Pintar said the hair on her arms rose. “I was skeptical, and I was like, ‘She is kidding me,’” she recalled thinking about her dog that day.

Archaeologists had found fragments of human bone and teeth in the chest, but these had been removed months earlier for analysis and radiocarbon dating. All that was left was a bit of dirt, the stone slabs of the tomb and the cracked limestone of the ridge.

Human-remains detection dogs, or cadaver dogs, are used worldwide on land and water. Well-trained dogs help find the missing and dead in disasters, accidents, murders and suicides. But the experiment in Croatia marked the start of one of the most careful inquiries yet carried out of an unusual archaeological method. If such dogs could successfully locate the burial sites of mass executions, dating from World War II through the conflicts in the Balkans in the 1990s, might they be effective in helping archaeologists find truly ancient burials?

On the scent of new tombs

Panda wasn’t kidding. Neither was Mali, the other Belgian Malinois trained by Ms. Pintar and her husband, Christian Nikolić. Each dog gave her final indications that day by either sitting or lying inside the flattened circle of the tombs, their noses pointing toward the burial chests within. In some cases they leapt into the small burial chests before offering an alert.

The dogs’ archaeological expedition had been initiated by Vedrana Glavaš, an archaeologist at Croatia’s University of Zadar. She already knew a great deal about the necropolis at Drvišica, having fully excavated and analyzed the contents of three tombs there. Inside each were rough limestone burial chests. She and her team recovered amber beads, belt buckles, bronze pins, teeth and phalanges. Each chest once held at least two bodies, which radiocarbon dating confirmed were 2,700 years old. The skeletal material was highly fragmented, however, and is still being analyzed.

But were there other tombs on the site, and could the dogs help locate them?

After that first preliminary search and its surprising result, Dr. Glavaš had beers at a local pub with the dogs’ handlers. They decided to hold off any discussion for a few weeks.

“We needed to think a little bit about what just happened,” Dr. Glavaš said.

That “test run” was the beginning of a careful study on whether human-remains detection dogs could be an asset to archaeologists. Setting up a controlled study was difficult. Dr. Glavaš had to learn the scientific literature, such as scent theory, far outside the standard confines of archaeology; the same was true for Ms. Pintar and the field of archaeology.

The training challenges were also difficult. Ancient human remains probably present a different and fainter scent profile than more recently deceased cadavers, especially as decades turn into centuries and then millenniums. False negatives seemed likely to occur.

“I think dogs are really capable of this, but I think it’s a logistical challenge,” said Adee Schoon, a scent-detection-animal expert from the Netherlands who was not involved in the study. “It’s not something you can replicate again and again. It’s hard to train.”

And, as Dr. Schoon noted, dogs are “great anomaly detectors.” Something as subtle as recently disturbed soil can elicit a false alert from a dog that is not rigorously trained.

Nonetheless, the team returned to the necropolis for the first controlled tests in September 2015, and again a full year later. Both times, they used all four of Ms. Pintar and Mr. Nikolić’s cadaver dogs: Panda, Mali, a third Belgian Malinois and a German shepherd. They worked them on both known and double-blind searches, in areas where nobody knew if tombs were located.

The dogs located four tombs new to the archaeologists. Dr. Glavaš had suspected that a fifth site might hold a burial chest, and the dogs’ alerts, combined with excavation, proved her suspicion correct.

In September 2019, the Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory published the results of their study: “This research has demonstrated that HRD dogs are able to detect very small amounts of specific human decomposition odor as well as to indicate to considerably older burials than previously assumed,” Dr. Glavaš and Ms. Pintar wrote.

Dr. Schoon, who researches and helps create protocols to train scent-detection animals worldwide, said the Iron Age necropolis study was nicely designed and “really controlled.”

Archaeological cold cases

Panda and Mali aren’t the only dogs in the world that have helped locate human archaeological remains. In the United States, human remains detection dogs have aided discoveries at a variety of Native American sites, some badly damaged by looters and earlier generations of archaeologists with less ethical approaches to excavation, as well as by development and agriculture.

Paul Martin, a dog handler and trainer in Tennessee who is finishing his doctorate in earth sciences and geoarchaeology at the University of Memphis, has studied using dogs to find older remains for nearly two decades, demonstrating their capabilities at some of the large earthen mounds across the eastern United States that were once surrounded by flourishing Native American cities and villages.

His curiosity was piqued in 2002. Mr. Martin and his trained search dog were helping look for a murder victim in a Mississippi county where an informant said the victim was buried on “an old Indian mound.” The dog started showing intense interest at the mound, and Mr. Martin suspected that it wasn’t the more recent murder that held the dog’s attention.

He spoke with John Sullivan, then a state archaeologist at Winterville Mounds near Greenville, Miss. Mr. Sullivan was curious, too: “Paul asked me if dogs would pick up old stuff and I said, ‘Only one way to find out.’”

Mr. Martin started inviting experienced cadaver dogs and handlers to train on and near intact mounds. For years, they recorded dogs’ alerts on mounds in two areas of Mississippi, and even in fields nearby, where earlier mounds were probably flattened.

But getting funding and permission to do excavations is difficult. The alerts remained unconfirmed. Nonetheless, nature sometimes kicks out some free clues. That’s what happened on Mound H in Winterville, Miss., in 2006.

Rodents provided “ground-truthing,” or confirming evidence, free of charge by digging new burrows and displacing what had been hidden for centuries. Just downhill from where a number of human remains detection dogs had alerted during earlier training, “we actually saw a trail of bone coming down the side of the mound,” Mr. Martin said.

A forensic anthropologist confirmed the bones were human, including a child’s scapula. Mr. Sullivan believes they come from the last burials at the site, and date to around 1450 A.D.

Cadaver dogs are also helping archaeologists at some especially challenging sites. Mike Russo and Jeff Shanks, archaeologists with the National Park Service’s Southeast Archeological Center, had created at least 14 test holes near a promising site in northwest Florida that had been flattened during an earlier era of less diligent archaeology. They found nothing.

“We knew where it should be, but when we went there, there was absolutely no mound,” Mr. Russo said.

They then asked Suzi Goodhope, a longtime cadaver-dog handler in Florida, to bring her experienced detection dog, Shiraz, a Belgian Malinois, to the site in 2013. Shiraz and Ms. Goodhope worked the flat, brushy area for a long time. Then, Shiraz sat. Once.

“I was pretty skeptical,” Mr. Shanks said.

Nonetheless, the archaeologists dug. And dug. They went down nearly three feet — and there they found a human toe bone more than 1,300 years old.

Passing sniff tests

What is the future of using human-remains detection dogs as a noninvasive tool in archaeology?

Some archaeologists, forensic anthropologists, geologists, scientists — and even H.R.D. dog handlers who know how challenging the work is — say they have great potential. But challenges abound.

Although researchers are learning ever more about the canine olfactory system, they are still trying to pinpoint what volatile organic compounds in human remains are significant to trained dogs.

It’s also unclear what concentration of human remains a trained dog can detect, and which aspects of a given environment help retain the scent.

Ms. Pintar and Dr. Glavaš speculate that at the site in Croatia used in their study, the porous and cracked limestone on the ridge might play a role in the longevity of the scent there. Perhaps the mountain itself — used as the base of each burial chest — held on to the scent for thousands of years. But more research will need to be completed to confirm these findings.

Detection dogs also must be trained for archaeology with more consistency. Often humans are the limiting factor. Sometimes, Dr. Schoon said, she can almost see a dog thinking, “Is that all you want me to do? I can do much more!”

And dogs are only a complement to more standard archaeological tools, Mr. Martin noted. The best results come when good human-remains detection dog teams are combined with ground-penetrating radar, geophysical surveys and historical information, and — when feasible or desirable — confirmed with soil tests or excavation.

But more archaeologists around the world are taking note of detection dogs’ potential. Ms. Goodhope has continued working with park service archaeologists on lost slave cemeteries, Civil War sites and other early Native American sites. And Mr. Sullivan, now with the federal Bureau of Land Management, continues to work with dogs and handlers to locate, and avoid the destruction of, Native American sites.

Since Ms. Pintar and Dr. Glavaš’s Croatia study was published last year, several European and Croatian archaeologists have asked them for help in identifying sites, too.

As for the Iron Age necropolis high on the rocky ridge at Drvišica? Dr. Glavaš said she doesn’t intend to return to excavate there.

“Something has to be left for future archaeologists.”

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journalmaterialscience-blog · 5 years ago

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Kolkata Flyover Collapse- April 2016

Background

Kolkata is the capital city of West Bengal state within the Indian Union. It covers an area of approximately 185sq. km and current population around 5 million. It is situated on the banks of the river Ganges (GANGA) and is one of the most densely populated cities in the country. To overcome the traffic congestion on the major roads in the business districts, the Govt has undertaken construction of several flyovers which has eased the traffic flow in certain localities. One of the recent ones is a 2.5km stretch in Central Kolkata, having 2 serviceable roads with provision for expansion to 4 lanes in future as traffic flow grows. The location of the flyover is shown in the above map of the city.

Construction of the flyover started in 2007 and target completion was scheduled in 2009 to cater to the needs for uninterrupted construction. But due to various constraints specially in getting regulatory clearances as work site situation changed and also due to fund constraint , the contractor had financial difficulties in progressing as per schedule. There was change of govt in between so that the new target was set at 2014. About 75% of the work was completed and it was expected that the facilities will be commissioned in 2016. Unfortunately, on March 26, 2016 part of the flyover structure collapsed causing loss of lives and damage to properties. The magnitude of the accident was so severe that Army had to be called in and it took over 6 days to clear the debris and rescue dead bodies trapped under the debris . It was a heart rendering scene. All photography and approach to the site was banned temporarily. Therefore, this write up is based on information, I could gather from various sources and there may be inadvertent omissions and mistakes (Figure 1-3).

At the proposed workshop, I will try to analyze the factors that may have caused this mishap Few photographs and sketches are included in this analysis.

Go to

Construction

The flyover has to be constructed on a very busy stretch of the city road network. Therefore, the construction must not create hurdles to the traffic flow. Moreover, the area is highly congested so the project must be completed within very tight time schedule. Keeping all these factors in mind it was decided to adopt structural steel structures for the superstructure. Box girders were chosen for columns and beams forming rigid portal frames on RCC foundations supported on bored cast in pipes driven to 45m below the r level. The soil is predominantly sandy clay with mix of gangetic alluvium having bearing capacity around 8 T/m². This required the piles to be on a bed of compact sand stone at average 45m depth. Schematics of the construction shown below.

To expedite the project completion and reduce site work, the super structure was designed using structural steel portal of box sections erected over RCC foundations supported on bored cast in situ piles driven 45m under the GL where a layer of compact sandstone exists. On top of the steel super structure a cast in situ RCC slab 200mm thick was designed topped by a 100mm PC wearing course and finally 50mm thick mastic asphalt surfacing was laid. The live load was as per guideline of various codes and Ministry of Surface Transport, Govt of India. However, as the bridge was not commissioned at the time of accident, the live load was absent. Under this circumstance, the failure was due to other factors as analysed by Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) which has wide application in industrial plant projects from design stage. The same analogy can be applied in this case with slight difference as Failure Mode and Reason Analysis (FMRA). This is explained by the following diagram.

Application of forensic engineering in root cause failure analysis (RCFA)

In the absence of adequate design data, and restrictions on site visits, the analysis has to be based on scanty information available from various sources. Forensic engineering principles have been applied to ascertain the Root Cause Failure Analysis . It is to be noted that failure has occurred when the bridge was not subjected to any live load from moving vehicles. Thus, it can be inferred that there was some basic design deficiency. The longitudinal beams spanning between the portal hammer head frames had no bracings on the compression flanges to prevent lateral buckling. Such buckling imposed additional horizontal loads on the portal frame box girders . At the portal frame hammer heads the horizontal box girder beams should have extra depth at the knee joint to withstand additional moments resulting from moment redistribution according to stiffness of each member at the joint. The box girders should have internal ribs to withstand torsion forces resulting from torsion and buckling of the girders. The various stages for failure of the portal frame girders are shown below. Thus, it can be concluded that there were inherent design deficiencies from the beginning. The other contributory factors for failure can be attributed to inadequate QA/QC measures at shop and site during fabrication and site erection of the portal frames. Normal practice for acceptance of structural steel is to depend on mill test certificates. In such girders it is advisable to carry out USG tests and Pulse echo testing of steel plates to ascertain that they are free from internal defects. From the failure pattern of the top flange plates of the portal frame box girders, it is clear that there were internal defects inside the plates causing rupture and eventual failure of the top flange. Also the thick plates should have undergone preheating and imposition of inter pass temperature guidelines during welding. It is doubtful how much these were done during fabrication and assembly of the box girders. In the absence of such practice, there is bound to be inbuilt residual stresses inside the plates which lower the yield stress level and are apt to fail when loads come on them (Figure 4-6).

At the workshop all these will be analyzed in details and sample design calculations due to non availability of specific design data, the principle of Reverse Engineering Technology will be demonstrated (Figure 7 & 8).

Risk priority number (RPN): Risk priority number methodology is a technique for analysing the risk associated with potential failures during a FMEA analyses. To calculate risk priority number, severity, occurrence, and detection are the three factors need to determine.

RPN= Severity× Occurrence× Detection (reasons) = 10 x 2 x 4 = 80

In this case since Severity is the main contributor to the RPN Value, therefore, failure can be categorised as highly hazardous

Occurrence (O): Occurrence ratings for FMEA are based upon the likelihood that a cause may occur based upon past failures and performance of similar system in similar activity. Occurrence values should have data to provide justification. An example rating for occurrence is given in the (Table 1).

Detection (D) (Reasons): Detection is an assessment of the likelihood that the current controls will detect the cause of failure mode. An example for detection is as shown in (Table 2 & 3).

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abujaihs-blog · 6 years ago

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Building Collapse: Lagos, Anambra, Abuja Rank Highest – Report

Fresh facts has emerged that Lagos, Anambra, Abuja and Kogi topped the chart as the states with the highest number of building collapses from 2012 to 2019. Findings has indicated that about 408 persons died, while over 617 sustained various degrees of injury in eight years, across 25 states, inclusive of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). The states are FCT, Lagos, Anambra, Ogun, Kaduna, Kogi, Taraba, Kwara, Benin, Abia, Ondo, Plateau, Rivers, Bayelsa and Sokoto. The other states are Imo, Benue, Oyo, Kano, AkwaIbom, Jigawa, Rivers, Niger and Osun. While Lagos recorded 38 collapses during the period under review, Anambra, Abuja and Kogi States had 10, 7 and 7 incidents respectively. This was followed by Ogun, Kwara, Imo and Benue States which recorded three collapses each in eight years. Benin, Ondo, Delta, Akwa Ibom and Rivers States had two collapses each within the period under review. Also, Kaduna, Taraba, Abia, Plateau, Rivers Bayelsa, Sokoto, Oyo, Kano, Jigawa, Niger and Osun States experienced one building collapse each in eight years. A report obtained from the Nigeria Institute of Civil Engineers (NICE) highlighted that in 2012, the highest death recorded was when a 3 storey at Oloto street, Ebute Metta collapsed, killing 10 persons. About 24 persons died while 133 injured across the 25 states in 2012. The incidents were attributed to unsupervised demolition of defective building, occasioned by use of substandard materials and inadequate concrete mix ratio. However in 2013, the highest death witnessed was when a 3-storey building marked for demolition at Ebute Metta, Lagos Island collapsed, an incident that led to the death of 7 persons in May.

While 39 persons died, 120 sustained various degree of injury in 2013, just as the incidents were linked to heavy downpour, use of substandard materials and premature removal of concrete slab/decking formwork. Further findings indicated that the highest death in 2014, was pronounced when a 6- storey hostel under construction at Synagogue Church of All Nations (SCOAN), Ikotu Lagos collapsed on 12th September, leading to the death of 116 persons, mainly South Africans, while over 100 persons were injured due to faulty foundation. The other incidents within the year was also linked to the use of substandard building materials as 132 died, while 163 sustained injury in 2014. In 2015, one person died when a 3-storey building at 87 Swamp street Odunfa, Lagos Island collapsed on October 21. The other incidents within the year was attributed to gas explosion and deserted building marked for demolition, just as 19 persons were injured. Only one death case and 19 injuries were recorded in 2015, considered to the lowest number of fatalities so far. However in 2016, the highest death recorded was during the collapse of a church building (Reigners Bible Church) in Uyo, Akwa Ibom state on December 10. About 50 persons died , while over 100 others were injured/trapped at the time of the incident, due to inadequate roof support and poor construction/ supervision. This was followed by the collapse of a 5-storey building at Lekki Garden, Lekki Phase 1 Ikate Lagos on March 8, where 35 persons died and several injured over poor quality construction materials, workmanship and supervision, increase in the number of floors from three to five. The third highest incident recorded in the same year involved a 2-storey building under construction at Kano State University of Science and Technology , Wudil that collapsed on August 22, killing 20 persons and injuring five.

Throughout the year, 137 persons died, while over 50 were injured. The incidents were linked to heavy rainfall, structural defect, poor quality of construction materials, workmanship and supervision. Also, the highest incident recorded in 2017, was the collapse of a four-storey building in Lagos on July 26, 2017, that led to the death of eight persons. About 32 persons died , while over 62 sustained various degrees of injury within the year under review. The entire incident in 2017 was rated as distressed building marked for demolition, weakened and dilapidated building. Also, in 2018, the highest fatality recorded was when a seven-storey building under construction in Port Harcourt, Rivers State collapsed on November 23, killing 17 persons due to overload. About 23 persons died, while over 12 were injured all through the year. The collapses were attributed to weak and dilapidated structures likewise distressed buildings marked for demolition. In 2019, the highest collapse recorded from January to May involved the collapse of a three-storey residential/school building at 14 Massey street, Ita Faji area of Lagos Island, on 13th March. About 20 persons died , while 43 others were injured. Within the year, 58 persons died in different locality where similar incident occurred. They were linked to poor concrete casting and the developer’s failure to liaise with approving authorities before embarking on the project. To this end, experts who spoke to LEADERSHIP advocated compulsory Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on all proposed building sites before construction. The chairman of NICE, Abuja chapter, Engr. Dominic Onuh Akuboh, sought the strengthening of student’s industrial training and work experience scheme, adding that government should prioritise technical education at all levels.

He recommended that government should collaborate with professional bodies to review building codes and educational curricula especially in tertiary institutions to include relevant courses such as failure analysis, forensic science, reliability, probabilistic analysis of failure modes, geotechnical/foundation engineering. While disclosing that developers should comply with all regulations pertaining to building designs, modifications, construction approvals, supervision, standard material specifications and permits, he challenged them to provide details of soil investigation and land survey in their sites. Akuboh pleaded with regulators and professional bodies to collaborate by ensuring proper supervision of design, work, quality of materials and personnel at all stages of construction projects. Lending his voice, Engr. Kanno Ukoabasi, pointed out that qualified civil engineers should supervise the execution of buildings and ensure strict adherence to contract specifications. He recommended that soil investigation, material test and Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA) must be made compulsory for all residential, institutional, industrial and commercial buildings. Ukoabasi noted that the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) should be vigilant to ensure that building materials imported into the country conformed to standards requirements. To curb the menace of building collapse, he enjoined stakeholders in the building and construction industry to join forces with the regulatory and professional bodies to tackle the problems headlong. Source: By Chika Okeke Read the full article

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marymosley · 4 years ago

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Importance of Pugmarks in Wildlife Forensics

Wild animals can be difficult to spot because of their instinctive behaviour to avoid humans. However, the presence of wild animals often can be determined by their pugmarks in snow, sand, or soft mud. Whenever an animal moves through the jungle over a suitable ground, leaves mark or impressions it called as pugmarks (paw marks). In simple terms, pugmarks refer to the footprints of almost all the animals. Every individual animal species have distinct pugmarks and numerous features contained in it can be used to support the identification of an animal. Many people have learned to read wildlife pugmarks with a remarkable skill for hunting purposes.

In wildlife forensic, pug marks have significant importance and considered as valuable evidence. These pugmarks are easy to discover indirect evidence of an animal presence. The keen observation of these pugmarks can tell a lot about the animal’s sex, age, size, health conditions, and the time and direction in which the animal had moved. The scientific examination, identification, and comparison of pug marks from crime scenes can link with a suspect and a victim.

Nature of pug marks:-

Pugmarks are produced under the following circumstance:

The impressions of the pug may be caused in mud, dust, sand, and snow or similar surfaces. These impressions will be depressed or three-dimensional type and these are known as sunken pug mark impressions. These type of pug marks are most commonly found.

If the pug mark is produced by deposition of material like dust, dirt, blood, colored powdery substance, etc., on hard and smooth surfaces, giving rise to a two-dimensional print, which is called surface pug mark.

Pugmarks may also be produced by lifting dust or liquid material in which case a negative print will be left on the surface.

The different species of animals, especially the large carnivores that are traditionally tracked with the help of pugmarks are divided into two broad categories:

The members of the ‘Dog family’ or the ‘Canidae’ that typically move and hunt in packs often walking long distances in a file. In the members of this family, the claw marks are usually noticeable in front of the toe pads. As compared to the heel pad the toes are larger which helps them to run down the prey and the gap between the top of the heel pad and the two middle toes is evidently more than what is found in cats (hyenas is an exception). The front points of the two middle toes occur side by side (aligned).[1]

The members of the ‘Cat family’ or the ‘Felids’ that lead a solitary existence, depending on stealth for hunting down prey. They are acceptable climbers and some like the leopards take their hunt to a tree for abstaining from poaching by different carnivores. The claws or nails are hardly ever visible, the soft heel pad is comparatively larger (to encourage stealth) and the middle toes are put nearer to the pad. The middle toes of the felids are at different levels, especially for the hind paws.[1]

Mostly the large carnivores leave the soft padded four-toed pugmarks in the jungle.

Pugmarks of Sloth Bear, Elephant, Fox & Tiger:-

In the case of sloth bear tracks, the pug marks appear flat due to the presence of flat sole in their limbs.

In the case of elephants, the size of the pugmark itself reveals the elephant’s footmarks.

In fox, the pug marks are very close to the median line, creating an impression of rope walking.[2]

In tiger’s, pugmarks comprise of a pad and four-toes. A fifth toe is commonly called the dewclaw, which is put high on the front limbs only and it does not contact the ground. At the rear end, the pad is 3-lobed.

Significance of Pug Marks:-

Pugmarks of wildlife species are important evidence in the forensic analysis of species. The significance of pugmarks is discussed below.

(1) Determination of Sex using Pug mark Measurements:

The sex of animal species can be determined by measuring the length and width of full pug mark, pad, and toe and some other distinct features. Example, Tiger- The pugmarks of mature males are usually larger than that of the females. The pugmarks of a male nearly fit into a square whereas the pugmarks of a female nearly fit into a rectangle. The shape of toes in a male is more rounded while in the case of females they are elongated.

(2) The age of Pugmarks can be calculated by looking at the dust and soil depositions. When pugmarks are fresh, then the wall of the soil, sand, or dust surrounding the imprints of toes and pads are intact and almost perpendicular, and the bases of imprints of pugmarks are smooth flat. With time, depending on whether pugmarks were in a shelter or an open spots, the actions of the rays of sunlight, the rate of airflow, the dewdrops of the night, the dust deposited on the pugmarks and the movement of invertebrates, the walls of the pugmarks get cracks and the pile of earth that took the weight of the animal also begins to fill up with dust deposits and other droppings.[3]

(3) Animal Movement Patterns (Gaits):

Different animals move differently depending on their body mechanics and behaviour. A few animals like deer and cats spend the majority of their time walking. Other animals like coyotes and foxes are intended for trotting. Numerous other animal species have their particular hopping, loping, or bounding movement patterns that are unique to that one specific animal species. These gait patterns are a major key for how trackers interpret the behaviour and even foresee future activity of animals just by contemplating trail patterns. Notwithstanding, these will also help you more strongly to recognize what animal made the trail. [4]

(4) Identification of Animal Species based on Pugmark Analysis:

“Every individual animal has its distinct pugmark.”

This principle is used for identification purposes. Pugmark plays a major role in identifying a given specific animal in terms of sex, age, or size as well as the total accuracy of the given individual species. Humans have difficulty in carrying out this task because not every footprint left by the animal is the perfect one. The abnormalities or deformities in a particular paw become relevant and hence, it narrows downs the search. In the manual method of identification, a series of measurements of pugmarks are noted and compared with the available data.

Digital pugmark technology (DPT) is a new age technology for the identification of animals based on their pugmarks. This method is used for estimating the specific individual species using a statistical approach. Each animal leaves a particular set of pugmarks while walking.[5]

(5) Study of Wildlife Population (Census) / Pugmark-based population monitoring:

The population of the remaining rare animals in the forests needs to be protected. An animal footprint is the unique identity of the animal world. There are several techniques available to study animal behaviour. This method is a safe and brilliant way to spot the presence of an animal in a place. The main objective of the wildlife census is to find out the density of the population of the species and to procure basic data for its management.

(6) The pugmark is also helpful in estimating time when an animal moved and direction in which the animal traveled. The major problem with pugmark impressions based on the identification of species includes is an undetectable footprint on hard surfaces and sometimes these footprint sites are often contaminated by the presence of other animals. Undetectable pugmarks and erosions by the other animals in pugmarks analysis are the major limitations in the field of wildlife forensic. If pugmarks analysed skilfully and lawfully, they can provide reliable data.

Case Study:-

In the Bhogpur village of Bijnor district, from November 27, 2019, to the first week of January a leopard attacked and killed 6 people. The leopard’s pug marks were observed in some areas. These pugmarks found in the Mandawar area were matched with others. Later, on January 6, 2020, the leopard was killed by the villagers after it attacked and killed a schoolboy at Bhogpur village. According to the forest officers, the camera traps, pugmarks, and its picture were matched with the dead leopard and the killer leopard was identified. (TOI)

REFERENCES

https://www.hillsofmorni.com/morni-wildlife/the-lost-art-of-reading-pugmarks/ (Date Accessed 18/06/2020)

http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=78067 (Date Accessed 19/06/2020).

Syed Wahabuddin Nasir. THE TIGER: Keeper of the Forest, Notion Press, 08-Feb-2018.

https://ift.tt/2CPqJwh (Date Accessed 19/06/2020)

Ranjit Talwar, Amir Usmani. READING PUGMARKS-A pocketbook for forest guards. (2005). Published by Tiger & Wildlife Programme, WWF India.

Mohammed Nazir Alli, Serestina Viriri, Animal Identification Based on Footprint Recognition. DOI: 10.1109/ICASTech.2013.6707488

B.S.Nabar. Forensic Science in Crime Investigation. (2015) Third Edition, Asia Law House Hyderabad.

Sam Smallidge. (2016). Article on Identifying and Preserving Wildlife Tracks. New Mexico State University. Circular 561.

Deepak P., Jeevan K. M., Anoop T.R., and Smitha Suresh. Tiger Census Using Low-Quality Foot Print Image. e-ISSN: 2278-2834, p- ISSN: 2278-8735. PP 49-57.

https://ift.tt/2BbeLwJ Accessed 18/06/2020)

https://ift.tt/3dEyF01 (Date Accessed 19/06/2020

AUTHOR

Palash A. Mehar

Intern (June 2020) at the Department of Forensic Science and Criminal Investigation, Legal Desire Media & Insights

He is currently pursuing a Master’s in Forensic Science from Government Institute of Forensic Science, Nagpur, Maharashtra. He has a keen interest in Forensic Biology and Serology, DNA Fingerprinting, and Fingerprint Examination. he has been part of poster presentations on the topics “Wildlife Forensic” and “NEONATICIDE: An Imperil To The Society”.

The post Importance of Pugmarks in Wildlife Forensics appeared first on Legal Desire.

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Management of DNA Sampling in Rape Incidents

Investigation of crime with scientific and forensic vigour ensures transparency in evidence collection abiding by the oftquoted aphorism “Not only must justice be done; it must be seen to be done”.[1] Both victim and accused are entitled to fair criminal proceedings with scientific investigation braced by forensic corroboration. Transparency in evidence processing builds faith in criminal justice apparatus. “Locard’s Exchange Principle”, the citadel for forensic sciences, says that when any person comes in contact with any object or any other person, a cross-transfer of physical evidence does occur.[2] Admissibility of expert opinion is conditioned upon the inviolability of forensic sample which necessitates infallible procedural management to avoid tampering, manipulation and mishandling of samples. The procedural protocol must invoke evidence dynamics to annul scope of any influence to modify, obscure, relocate or obliterate physical evidence, regardless of bona fide or malicious intent.

Rape is a global challenge for public safety and protection of women and children. Sexual offences suffer from under-reporting and poor rate of conviction for want of credible evidence. Forensic corroboration of the sole testimony of the prosecutrix in sex crime becomes significant since these crimes occur in isolation, practically eliminating possibility of finding ocular witness. Since 1986, DNA has emerged as a potent evidentiary tool for corroboration of sole testimony of the prosecutrix. Matching of DNA profiles of biological contents exchanged between the prosecutrix and the accused has credible probative value. Touch DNA technology, especially Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), adds value especially when biological content is in traces. In forensic world, selection, collection, packaging, labelling, storage, preservation, transport and maintenance of chain of custody are vital steps for handling physical samples with utmost care and expertise aiming to avoid risk of contamination, destruction, loss or potential fiddle.

Serving Member of Indian Police Service from Uttar Pradesh and currently on deputation to the Government of India. Also pursuing research activities at Gujarat Forensic Sciences University (GFSU), Gandhinagar 382 007, India. Email: [email protected] (Corresponding Author)

This article is primarily intended to emphasise upon the importance of maintaining sanctity of forensic samples by timely conducting forensic medical examination (FME) of individuals or relevant spots to maintain sanctity and reliability of samples. Proposed standard operating procedures (SoP) would be a beacon of light for foot soldiers of law enforcement agencies to handle forensic samples without any legal or scientific procedural lapses. It further aspires to homogenise forensic intervention to improve competence of medicolegal experts for conducting FME; and assist courts to undertake comprehensive procedural evaluation of expert opinion in order to rebuild faith of common mass in judicial processes.

EMPIRICAL OBSERVATIONS

Police in India recommended prosecution in 96% cases of sexual offences in 2016 but secured conviction in only 25% cases.[3] The pendency for trial of these cases is nearly 88%.[4] The grim scenario of low rate of conviction coupled with delayed trial can be addressed by improving quality of investigation especially adducing corroboration by forensic evidence. Hostility of the prosecutrix due to various factors including acquaintance and proximity of the accused with rape survivor is a prominent reason for acquittal, which may be aptly addressed by forensic and medicolegal corroboration.[5] Forensic tools would further brace prosecution story by cross-examination of a hostile witness in courtroom, in order to secure conviction. However, conducting scientific investigation needs skilled manpower trained in forensics and legal procedures supported by standard protocol for management of forensic footprints.

Synthesis of this protocol derives its focus from recent empirical study conducted to investigate role of DNA in administering justice in sexual assault cases in the State of Uttar Pradesh in India which has a population of approximately 200 million.[6] The incidents of sexual violence in India are exceeding threshold level when compared to global scenario, emphasising for academic enquiry. A total of 998 investigating officers, 310 supervisory police officers and 350 Public Prosecutors responded during this empirical study through interview guides and questionnaires. 114 stakeholders as key informants such as forensic scientists, medicolegal experts, attorneys and Judges were interviewed for qualitative feedback. Specific case studies of rape incidents were also carried out to learn the status of DNA as evidence.

The study revealed that first responders to crime scene are not adequately trained in handling forensic samples and standard protocols are missing, consequently, investigators used DNA evidence only in 5% cases. On an average, investigators train only for around three days in their entire career on DNA evidence still 25% of them believe that they have sufficient skills for conducting scientific investigation. This mindset probably restricts them from learning and upgrading their investigative proficiency.

FORENSIC SAMPLES: NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE

Forensic evidence may be traced and collected from various sources such as victim, accused or the environment. Physical samples after forensic analysis may furnish credible information used as secondary evidence helping in pursuit of truth. Forensic evidence validates fairness in investigation by reconstruction of crime scene, corroboration of oral statements and facts, identification of unknown victims or perpetrators with greater precision in blind cases. DNA evidence since inception has proved to be a panacea for correctional justice to secondary victimisation due to false accusation and wrongful conviction.[7]

Indeed transforming forensic sample into admissible piece of evidence is an art requiring strict procedural regime including protection of crime scene from unwanted incursions. Mainly two types of physical evidence, either having non-biological origin such as fingerprint or footprint, shoe impression, tyre mark, soil, gunshot residue, cigarette butts, bottle, cans, glass, note, etc., or evidence of biological origin such as blood, semen, vaginal fluid, saliva, sweat, condom content, nail clips, bite marks, scrotal swab, etc. may be collected. Pollen grains, wood and plants may also have vital forensic links. Biological samples are potential source for DNA.

Nomenclature of forensic samples

Forensic sample collected from scene of crime or other source for matching is referred as Unknown/Questioned Sample.[8] Standard/Reference Sample is collected from a known source of origin (like victim, accused, and other verifiable sources), mainly used for identification of unknown samples and accreditation of procedures. Controlled/blank sample has known source of origin used for comparative analysis for the purpose of inclusion or exclusion.[9]

Consent for collecting DNA sample

Subject’s consent to collect DNA sample constitutes cornerstone of the right to privacy, protected by constitution in most of the jurisdictions. DNA discloses a catena of personal genetic information, hence prior consent of subject becomes overarching. Section 53-A of the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 of India enables medicolegal expert to collect DNA sample of an accused of rape on advice of police officer. However, to collect biological sample and for conducting medicolegal examination of rape survivor, informed consent is mandatory.[10] In the interest of justice, courts are provided with overreaching powers for balancing competing interests of individual and community in obtaining biological sample provided procedure of sample extraction is non-invasive in nature.[11] However, issue of consent becomes more prominent in the light of the recent judgment of K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India[12], whereby the Supreme Court of India has recognised privacy as fundamental right, an integral part of right to life with dignity under Part III of the Indian Constitution.

Scope of forensic samples in rape incidents

In sexual violence, the history of incident helps a forensic examiner to locate and to collect samples of forensic significance. During sexual assault, semen, blood, saliva and hair may get exchanged between perpetrator and victim and may also be traceable on articles in contact. During physical examination, Wood’s lamp and Polilight help to detect stains of biological content.[13], [14] Video and photography of crime scene help to preserve the location of evidence.

Brief forensic importance of semen, blood and saliva is discussed below:

Semen.—Transfer of semen from male perpetrator to victim is a potent forensic marker. Semen is highly fluorescent under UV light and Wood’s lamp helps to detect semen stains. Indeed semen contains spermatozoa suspended in the seminal fluid. The chance of getting spermatozoa in oral, anorectal and vaginal cavities diminishes after 6, 24 and 72 hours respectively after sexual contact.[15] In pre-pubertal girls, half-life of spermatozoa is comparatively shorter due to absence of cervical mucus.[16] In post-pubertal girls, sperms may be motile in vaginal secretion for 6 to 12 hrs and in the cervix may be traced as long as 5 days.[17] The dried stains of seminal or other body fluids on clothes or hard surface are relatively stable and may be detected even after one year.[18] The motility of spermatozoa depends on several factors such as perpetrator may be azoospermic or vasectomised, hence, semen smear analysis under optical microscope may provide deceptive results because spermatozoa may be absent. Prostate-specific Antigen (PAS) is considered most sensitive marker for semen detection including azoospermic samples in addition to DNA analysis.[19]

Blood.—Forensic serology mainly serum antigen and ABO group analysis traditionally provides clues for human identification. Blood being potent source of DNA, preferred as controlled sample for DNA forensics but it must be avoided subject has recent history of blood transfusion or bone marrow transplant.[20] Blood stains on body, clothes and articles must be collected for DNA source. Blood or tissues from aborted foetus or pregnant dead victim may be potential source for DNA match.

Saliva.—In sexual assault cases, saliva provides vital forensic clue since perpetrator commonly kisses, sucks or bites the victim and oral fluid may prevail on the victim’s skin especially on her breast, neck, face, throat, abdomen, groin, etc. In case perpetrator intensively kisses the victim, DNA may be recovered up to one hour from buccal cavity of victim provided FME is accomplished soon and victim has not wash her mouth for hygiene.[21] Butts of cigarettes, can/bottle of beverages, glass, etc. are also potential sources for this purpose. Phadebas test detects ?-amylase activity to identify saliva.[22] Saliva contains epithelial cells to conduct DNA analysis.[23]

Stability factors for DNA sample

DNA is relatively stable genetic molecule found in the nucleus of body cell. Various factors like time, chemical contact (washing of linen by soaps or detergents), external conditions (temperature, humidity, microbes) may adversely affect the stability of DNA. If FME is conducted within 72 hours of rape incident, chances of yielding credible forensic results are higher.[24] Possibility to collect foreign DNA from different parts of body is contingent with time span as given below:[25]

DNA from vagina/cervix may ideally collect within three days but up to seven days under certain circumstances.

DNA from anus — up to three days.

DNA from penis — vaginal epithelial cells of victim may be recovered on glance penis within 12 hours.

Fingernail scrapings — two days.

Buccal cavity (saliva and mouth swabs) — two days.

DNA from skin to skin contact (e.g. bruises or kissing) may be detected up to two days but up to seven days provided the subject has not showered.

Lubricant from a condom — up to thirty hours.

These life spans are only indicative since factors like quantum of transfer of biological content may vary from case to case. Further, washing, bathing, urination, brushing, etc. may also impinge on finding trace DNA.

Advice to rape survivor before forensic medical examination (FME)

The rape survivor must persistently be provided psychological support by domain experts. FME must be conducted at the earliest to avoid obliteration of forensic evidence. The victim of sexual violence may be advised to refrain from following activities, as far as possible, before undergoing FME:

Mouth wash or brush teeth, shower or cleaning any body part.

Change, wash or destroy clothes, if already done, then preserve clothing worn at time of incident.

Cutting or combing paint (sticky) hair.

Cutting or cleaning fingernails.

Drink, eat, chew or smoke.

Urinate, defecate or vomit, if unavoidable, then collect in clean container with lid.

Sport or athlete activities.

SOURCES OF DNA SAMPLES IN RAPE CASES

The medicolegal experts conduct detailed inspection of the bodies of the victim and the accused of sexual assaults for recording injuries and other vital information necessary for medicolegal report (MLR) and also conduct FME for collection of forensic samples from bodies and clothes of victim and the accused. Forensic experts collect relevant artifacts having forensic significance from crime scene.

The sources for DNA sample collection are as under:

Victim.—Vaginal swab, anal swab, buccal swab, breast swab, bite marks, pubic hair combing, saliva or semen stains, clothes especially undergarments to search for biological content for DNA analysis. Fingernail clips beneath hyponychium provide valuable evidence including hair, body fluids, fibres, vegetation, etc.

Accused.—Penal swab, buccal swab, bite marks, saliva or blood stains, fingernail clips, scrotal scrap, pubic hair combing, clothes.

Crime scene (place of occurrence).—Variety of biological tissues like plucked hair, stains of blood or semen, linen, fingerprints, etc. may be collected from condoms, sunglasses or eyeglasses, mobile or any other electronic device, bottles, cans, glass, cigarette butts, toothpick, chewed gum, food items, keys, vehicles, etc.[26] Menstrual products, tampons, condoms from garbage may provide DNA content, however, vomit residue around toilet rim may be analysed for drug facilitated sexual violence. A clear fingerprint may be a potent source for touch DNA analysis.

Place other than crime scene.—Articles such as clothes of the victim or accused, weapon, mobile phone, wallet, etc. recovered from any other place on advice of the accused/suspect (recovery under Section 27 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872) or witness may provide credible forensic evidence.

DNA KIT FOR EVIDENCE COLLECTION

Challenges of contamination and procedural inviolability of DNA sample may be addressed by using DNA kits having specialised items for forensic sampling. DNA kit must contain the following items:

Instructions for the user

Forms for documentation

Bags and sheets for large sample collection

Sterile sample containers

Latex or nitrile disposable gloves and other Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) including eye protection, paper mask that covers nose and mouth, hair net, white paper body suit, sleeve protectors, shoe covers

Blood collection devices including syringes and needles

Tubes, vials, vacutainers for blood samples

Swabs (sterile) of different size, shape and design to use for sample collection. Synthetic swabs made up of flocked nylon are preferred over cotton swabs.

Wooden or plastic containers for collection of fluids from lips, cheeks, vagina, anus, thighs, buttock, etc.

Swab boxes or other suitable container for packaging of swabs

Tweezers

Disposable razor blade or scalpel

Scissors

Distilled water

Bleach sterilisation solution (1:10), prepare fresh when needed

Alcohol pads for cleaning

Envelopes or bindle paper

Paper wrapping and paper bags

Pens/markers

Evidence tape

Biohazard labels

Lac (sealing wax) sticks for sealing

SEXUAL ASSAULT FORENSIC EVIDENCE (SAFE) OR RAPE TEST KIT[27],[28]

SAFE Kit is a customised version of DNA kit to assist in collection and safe preservation of forensic evidence gathered from prosecutrix, accused/suspects and the crime spot of sexual assaults. In addition to items in DNA kit, SAFE kit generally contains the following additional items:

Nail pick for scraping debris from beneath the fingernail hyponychium

Comb used to collect hair and fibres from the victim’s body

Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA), sodium fluoride

Self-sealing envelopes for preserving the victim’s clothes, blood samples, pubic hair and head hair

Clear glass slides

White sheets to collect physical evidence stripped from the body

Clean clothing, shower hygiene items for post-examination use by the survivors.

Other items for forensic/medical examination may include:[29]

Colposcope (to examine cervix, vagina and vulva)

Vaginal speculums

Camera (35mm, digital with colour printer)

Microscope

Magnifying glass

Wood’s lamp or a torch

Surgilube (lubricating agent)

Post-It Notes[30] to collect trace evidence

Toluidine blue dye

Urine Pregnancy Test Kit

Patient gown, cover sheet, blanket, pillow

Drying rack for wet swabs and clothing

COLLECTION OF BIOLOGICAL SAMPLES

Preserving samples from contamination and degradation is crucial precaution at any crime scene. Biological evidence may suffer from cross-contamination due to unprotected exposure to investigators, visitors or due to interface between biological specimens. In forensics, collection procedure may depend upon situation, location other than the nature of a sample. In sexual offences, tracing a biological sample is very critical, and alternate light source may be useful. The location of each stain found at crime scene must be duly documented (video-record and photograph). Priority must be given to collect biological material and trace evidence of fragile nature. It is preferable to submit the entire item, but if it is very large in size, then after photograph, relevant part of forensic worth must be collected for sampling.

Probable circumstances for collection of biological evidence are listed below:

Wet stain on absorbent surface.—A sterile dry cotton swab must be used for wet stain. Alternately, area of surface having wet stain must be cut by a clean and sterilised razor and for control sample adjacent area of surface (substrate sample) must be preserved.

Wet stain on non-absorbent surface.—One or more clean sterile swabs (or sterile gauze for larger stains) to soak up the stain must be used. Concentrate the stain on one portion of the tip of the swab (wooden or plastic swab stick), moisten the swab with distilled water and rub an area of the surface in an unstained region near the stain. Control sample must also be collected for the purpose of matching.

Dry stain on absorbent surface.—Cut the stained area and pack in a clean and dry white paper and collect a portion of unstained area as a control sample.

Dry stain on non-absorbent surface.—It is preferred to submit the entire item, if possible. In case not possible, then use a new or clean scalpel blade to scrape the stains from the surface on a clean white paper and fold properly for wrapping.

Sample from a smear.—A slightly dampened (with distilled water) sterile cotton swab must be used. In case of small stains, rubbing must be avoided and swab over the surface of entire stain; instead, apply constant pressure on the tip of the swab against the stain. Also collect a control sample by swabbing unstained adjacent surface areas with a new sterile swab moistened with a drop of distilled water. Allow the swabs to air dry and then package and label both swabs separately in envelopes or bindle paper.

Saliva and bite marks.—The interior and exterior areas of a bite mark should be swabbed with separate sterile swabs slightly moistened with distilled water and both swabs should be labelled accordingly. A clean sterile swab must be use to absorb wet saliva or mucous. The swabs must be dried in air before packaging them in separate envelopes followed by proper labelling.

Hair and fibres.—Three methods for collection of these trace evidence may be used:

(i) Visual collection.—In case hair and fibres are seen with naked eye on a surface, with the help of clean forceps and trace paper, the sample may be collected on to a clean piece of paper that must be folded and packaged in a paper envelope.

(ii) Tape lifting.—Trace tapes may be used to the location of probable area for collection of trace hair and fibres. The tapes carrying samples must be packaged in separate envelopes.

(iii) Vacuuming.—The area where the targeted samples are located must be vacuumed and evidence will be collected from filtered trap attached to the vacuum. These samples must be packaged in a clean trace paper. Vacuuming is the least desirable collection method because there is a risk of cross-contamination, if the equipment is not properly cleaned between each use.

Cigarette butts.—The butts must be handled after wearing gloves and never with bare fingers. The cigarette butts must be air dried before packaging. Cigarette ashes have no evidentiary DNA, but it may provide other forensic inputs like narcotics.

Underneath fingernail.—A damp and small thin tip swab must be used which may reach under the fingernails.

Sexual assault on bed or car.—In case, sexual assault happened on a bed or car, top surface of bed linen or seat fabric should be collected, especially the portion holding any stain, fibres and hair. An alternate light source may be used to locate hidden stains on bed linens or clothes invisible to naked eye. If wet stains are visible, a permanent marker must be used to discretely mark the location of wet stain and duly photographed. In case towel or tissue is used by the suspect and/or victim to clean up after the assault, it must be collected for getting trace evidence.

Controlled sample.—Biological samples like buccal swab, hair or blood is collected from the victim, accused/suspects and other related persons (acquainted with crime scene) for the purpose of inclusion or exclusion. In case of blood transfusion or bone marrow transplantation done to the subject, collecting blood for controlled sample is not preferable. In case of hair, at least seven hair with roots intact should be pulled out.[31] In case of oral-genital contact or deep kissing by perpetrator, collecting buccal swab of the victim must be avoided for known sample since it may be contaminated by perpetrator’s DNA. In such circumstances, root intact hair or buccal swab are preferred.

Precautions during sample collection.—Forensic team must use disposable mask, powder free glove, gown, etc. and avoid talking, sneezing, coughing, eating-drinking, smoking to prevent contamination of samples. New gloves must be used while handling each artefact. Microbial contamination may be avoided by collecting samples under aseptic conditions. Double-tipped swabs must be avoided. For preventing sample loss, one swab for each item of evidence must be preferred because more swabs may reduce concentration.[32] If any stain is cut from large clothes, new razor or blade must be used. Tape lifter should never be used to collect dry stains.

PACKAGING, LABELLING/TAGGING AND SHORT-TERM STORAGE

The sample must be properly dried up before packaging. If drying is not possible, samples (like tampons with blood, condom content, etc.) may be frozen. During packaging of biological material, due precaution depending on nature of evidence must be observed to prevent contamination, loss and degradation. Plastic wrappers, bags or containers should be avoided and self-sealing paper packages, foldable racks or bags must be preferred for sample packaging or storage. Wet or moist body fluids should not be stored in plastic bags for long time to avoid bacterial growth and contamination resulting into DNA degradation. The sample, especially clothes having biological fluids, stains or swabs collected from the subject must be properly dried in air before packaging. If blood or any other body fluid is soaked on a linen or garment, it should be wrapped with a sheet of clean white paper to protect stain patterns and prevent from possible cross-contamination, and inadvertent transfer of stains to unstained portions of the linen. A bindle may be used for packaging hair, fibres and leaves. All evidence should be packaged and sealed individually. Before sealing the package, the examiner/IO should put request form together with sample inside the kit. Packages should not be stapled and must be signed across the seal in order to detect possible tempering.

Labels list specifies the details from whom and where from the evidence was collected and may also include biohazard information. After proper labeling by biohazard designation, each sample must have a label/tag (ideally a bar coding/RFID) having following information:

Case reference: FIR No., police station, district, State, etc.

Item number.

Sample type

Location of recovery

Date and time of recovery

Investigator’s initial with name and date

The inventory of all labelled samples duly signed by two independent witnesses must be prepared and each sample must be photographed for maintaining chain of evidence. DNA may be degraded by adverse environmental factors such as heat, sunlight, bacteria and mould, hence, due precaution is warranted for safe preservation of perishable samples. During transport from scene of crime, samples must be stored in cool and dry environment and trunk of a police car should be avoided to carry the packaged evidence since it may get heated. A secured and well-equipped temporary storage facility is necessary to prevent degradation or contamination of biological samples. Direct sunlight and warm conditions may fasten DNA degradation. Ideally DNA samples must be stored in a refrigerator at 4?C or a freezer at -20?C to reduce DNA degradation or microbial growth.

SECURING “CHAIN OF CUSTODY” (COC) AND SAFE TRANSPORTATION OF SAMPLES

Authenticity of a sample is the hallmark for credible forensic reporting. The chain of custody (CoC) or chain of evidence, a vital legal document (protocol), provides safeguards against any manipulation or tampering with forensic samples. The chain of evidence accounts chronological documentation having detailed notes of seizure, custody, control, transfer and subsequent stages of analysis and disposition of evidence establishing authentic continuity of possession of a sample. The Court of Appeal of the State of New York had observed that “it is necessary to establish a complete chain of evidence, tracing the possession of the exhibit … to the final custodian, and … if one link in the chain is entirely missing, the exhibit cannot be introduced or made the basis for the testimony or report of an expert or officer.”[33]

The chain of evidence protects against human error, securing probity and sanctity necessary for admissibility of evidence during court proceedings.[34] During entire journey of forensic evidence from collection at crime scene to courtroom via forensic laboratory, the chain of evidence must be duly maintained in a logbook demonstrating that the sample was in legitimate custody at each stage. Indeed CoC represents series of documents such as courier receipts, laboratory logs and work sheets. The length of chain of custody varies in different jurisdictions as discussed in Ohio v. Conley[35].

The content of chain of evidence includes:

Unique identifier

Item description

Identity of the person who collected the item

Time and date of collection

Acknowledgment with identity of persons who received the docket

Description of docket movement

During criminal proceedings, prosecution has to eliminate every possibility of alteration, substitution or tampering of sample by establishing chain of evidence custody. However, in civil disputes, the burden of proving the custody chain rests on the party offering the evidence. In People v. Connelly28, the Court of Appeal of New York held that “Admissibility generally requires that all those who have handled the item ‘identify it and testify to its custody and unchanged conditions’ ’’. Minimum number of individuals must handle the docket and every time docket exchange hands, it must duly record on CoD documents.

CONCLUSION

Scientific investigation is a precursor to fair trial to ensure justice. DNA as unstoppable witness has proved its credibility in courtroom provided sanctity of biological sample is beyond any doubt. Negligence is no excuse in handling forensic samples since it may nullify the very purpose of forensic analysis and has potential to result in imperfect justice either by exoneration or false conviction of the accused. All stakeholders handling DNA sample in sexual offence cases need to be professionally educated and equipped with kits and procedural protocol for ensuring best usage of DNA evidence for assisting courts in pursuit for truth. Legal provisions must be in place making use of DNA technology compulsory in handling cases of sexual assaults to minimise possible misuse of oral testimony. The standard protocols for DNA sample is a futuristic step in the direction of administering perfect justice in cases of sexual assaults and other violent crimes.

———

[1]R. v. Sussex Justices, ex p McCarthy, [1924] 1 KB 256.

[2] Chisum W.J. and Turvey B., ‘Evidence Dynamics: Locard’s Exchange Principle & Crime Reconstruction’, Journal of Behavioral Profiling, vol. 1, no. 1, January 2000, pp. 1-15.

[3] Magalhães T, Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Silva B, et al., ‘Biological Evidence Management for DNA Analysis in Cases of Sexual Assault’, Scientific World Journal, 2015.

[4] Bureau TNCR, Crime in India, Ministry of Home Affairs, India (2016).

[5] ‘Proximity of accused to rape victim reason for hostile cases’, PTI, 2017.

[6] Goswami G.K., ‘Ensuring Justice in Sexual Offences: Role of DNA Profiling’, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, India, 2018.

[7] Connors, Lundregan, Miller and McEwen, ‘Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science: Case Studies in the Use of DNA Evidence to Establish Innocence After Trial’, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1996.

[8] Carter D.L., Law Enforcement Intelligence: A Guide for State, Local and Tribal Law Enforcement Agencies, US Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, Washington DC, 2004.

[9] Wilson O.W. and McLaren R. C., Police Administration, New York. McGraw-Hill, 1963

[10] Selvi v. State of Karnataka, (2010) 7 SCC 263.

[11] Nandlal Wasudeo Badwaik v. Lata Nandlal Badwaik, (2014) 2 SCC 576.

[12] (2017) 10 SCC 1.

[13] Santucci K.A., Nelson D.G., McQuillen K.K., et al., ‘Wood’s Lamp Utility in the Identification of Semen’, Pediatrics, vol. 104, no. 6, 1999, pp. 1342-1344.

[14] Vandenberg N. and Van Oorschot R.A., ‘The Use of Polilight® in the Detection of Seminal Fluid, Saliva and Bloodstains and Comparison with Conventional Chemical-based Screening Tests’, Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 51, no. 2, 2006, pp. 361-370.

[15] Jenny C., Child Abuse and Neglect E-Book: Diagnosis, Treatment and Evidence, Elsevier Health Sciences, 2010.

[16] Kellogg N., ‘The Evaluation of Sexual Abuse in Children’, Pediatrics, vol. 116, no. 2, 2005,

506-512.

[17] Gould J.E., Overstreet J.W. and Hanson F.W., ‘Assessment of Human Sperm Function after Recovery from the Female Reproductive Tract’, Biology of Reproduction, vol. 31, no. 5, 1984, pp. 888-894.

[18] Kellogg N (n 16).

[19] Khaldi N., Miras A., Botti K., et al., ‘Evaluation of Three Rapid Detection Methods for the Forensic Identification of Seminal Fluid in Rape Cases’, Journal of Forensic Science, vol. 49, no. 4, 2004, pp. 749-753.

[20] Caldas I.M., Magalhaes T. and Afonso A., ‘Establishing Identity using Cheiloscopy and Palatoscopy’, Forensic Science International, vol. 165, no. 1, 2007, pp. 1-9.

[21] Kamodyová N., Durdiaková J., Celec P., et al., ‘Prevalence and Persistence of Male DNA Identified in Mixed Saliva Samples after Intense Kissing’, Forensic Science International: Genetics, vol. 7, no. 1, 2013, pp. 124-128.

[22] Auvdel M.J., ‘Amylase Levels in Semen and Saliva Stains’, Journal of Forensic Science, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 426-431.

[23] Rogers N.L., Cole S.A., Lan H.C., et al., ‘New Saliva DNA Collection Method Compared to Buccal Cell Collection Techniques for Epidemiological Studies’, American Journal of Human Biology: The Official Journal of the Human Biology Association, vol. 19, no. 3, 2007, pp. 319-326.

[24] Magalhães T, Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Silva B (n 3).

[25] Magalhães T, Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Silva B (n 3); Connors, Lundregan, Miller and McEwen (n 7); Taylor T., ‘Extending the Time to Collect DNA in Sexual Assault Cases’, NIJ Journal, 2010, pp. 22-27.

[26] Raymond J.J., Van Oorschot R.A., Gunn P.R., et al., ‘Trace Evidence Characteristics of DNA: A Preliminary Investigation of the Persistence of DNA at Crime Scenes’, Forensic Science International: Genetics, vol. 4, no. 1, 2009, pp. 26-33.

[27] Rape Test Kit was first developed by Louis R. Vitullo in late 1970s to provide uniform protocol for forensic evidence collection in sexual assault cases.

[28] Guidelines and Protocols: Medico-legal care for survivors/victims of Sexual Violence, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, (2014).

[29] Ibid.

[30] Also known as sticky note is a small piece of paper having re-adherable strip of glue on one side, used for temporarily attaching to the artifact for brief notes.

[31] Pinheiro MdF, ‘A perícia em genética e biologia forense–criminalística biológica’, CSI Criminal Porto: Universidade Fernando Pessoa, vol. 1, 2008 pp. 1-40.

[32] Hochmeister M.N., Budowle B., Sparkes R., et al., ‘Validation Studies of An Immunochromatographic 1-Step Test for the Forensic Identification of Human Blood’, Journal of Forensic Science, vol. 44, no. 3, 1999, pp. 597-602.

[33] People v. Connelly, (1974), 316 NE 2d 706, pp. 708 (NY).

[34] Robinson v. Commonwealth, (1971), 183 SE 2d 179 (Va).

[35] (1971), 288 NE 2d 296 (Ohio Ct App).

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journalmaterialscience-blog · 5 years ago

Text

Kolkata Flyover Collapse- April 2016

Background

At the proposed workshop, I will try to analyze the factors that may have caused this mishap Few photographs and sketches are included in this analysis.

Go to

Construction

Application of forensic engineering in root cause failure analysis (RCFA)

RPN= Severity× Occurrence× Detection (reasons) = 10 x 2 x 4 = 80

In this case since Severity is the main contributor to the RPN Value, therefore, failure can be categorised as highly hazardous

Detection (D) (Reasons): Detection is an assessment of the likelihood that the current controls will detect the cause of failure mode. An example for detection is as shown in (Table 2 & 3).

For more Open access journals please visit our site: Juniper Publishers

For more articles please click on: Journal Material Science

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marymosley · 4 years ago

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Forensic Physical Fits in Trace Evidence Discipline

Introduction:

“Every contact leaves a trace” was theorized by Dr Edmond Locard which is famously known as Locard’s exchange principle. When contact between two objects takes place, it leaves some transfer between the purpose. In a crime scene, when a perpetrator commits a crime, they will leave something behind or take something with them due to their contact with the crime scene. This contact may lead to the transfer of trace materials known as trace evidence. The trace materials include human hair, animal hair, textile fibres, soil, rope, glass and paint. Thus, trace evidence is concerned with recognition, detection, collection, characterization, comparison and interpretation of this material collected to form evidence. To compare and interpret the trace evidence forensic physical fit of these trace evidence are necessary [1,2].

Physical fit can define as a realignment of two or more objects used to prove they formed a single object [3]. In forensic setup, realignment of an object left in the crime scene with the purpose obtained from the suspect can be crucial evidence to interpret or lead an investigation. In cases of hit and run case, if there is a physical fit established between the residue of paint obtained from the scene of a crime and the scratch marks or missing paint on the car of suspect it could be useful in further investigation of crime. Over the years, physical fit has used for investigation and many researches have conducted on the same to prove the reliability and validity. Physical fit distinguishes the trace evidence due to the individualization of the object that formed through realignment. Examples of these individualizations include broken parts of car, glass, paints, insulation tapes, woods and metal pieces [4,5].

1.Classification of Physical Fit:

1.1.Direct Physical Fit:

This type of physical fit is the direct matching of the fractured or torn piece, which can be a direct fit into the rest of the known pieces back together like the pieces of the jigsaw puzzle. It referred to as primary or first-order matching. It applies to solid materials like glass, plastic or metal. Careful matching of the objects will undoubtedly indicate that pieces when to put together form part of the same object. So, if the questioned piece will fit the piece retrieved under suspicion and will match to form a single object, then it is a direct fit. For example, a broken glass piece found in the crime scene matches the fractured glass in possession of suspect, this physical fit can lead to link the suspect to the crime [5,6]

2.2. Indirect Physical Fit:

Indirect physical fit matching involves a comparison of fractured or torn objects when the direct physical match is unavailable due to missing pieces or edges of the object are uneven. Therefore this process referred to as a secondary match. Indirect physical fit matching applies to items like fabric, paper or items that are not solid. The indirect physical fit does not fall into pieces of a jigsaw puzzle and therefore are more subtle and delicate cues for investigation [6]

2. General Principles in Comparison of Physical Fit patterns:

2.1. Recognition:

The first and foremost part of an investigation is the examination of the crime scene and recognizing the potential evidence. It is an essential step in linking an individual to the crime. It depends on the examiner’s skill to identify the feature, forms and patterns of the trace and to understand or recognize the potential of this trace to become evidence for later physical fit [6]

2.2. Identifying the evidence for physical fit:

After recognition of the evidence, the specimens obtained should compare to ensure that they were once part of the whole. The evidence should, therefore, compare to identify their class and individual characteristics. Class characteristic refers to the identification of the item as a member of class like the brand, size or general aspect which contributes to its wholeness. While individual characteristics refer to the thing identifies based on the unique feature that indicates the individuality of the item [6].

2.3.Exclusion of inconclusive evidence:

It is essential to realize that not every trace evidence will be a physical fit or match. Some of the evidence may not lead to any conclusion, and therefore it must be excluded. It can be due to insufficient details for comparison or inability to identify common characteristics [6].

3. Common physical fits in crime scenarios:

3.1. Glass evidence:

Glass evidence can be noted in crime scenarios involving automobile accidents, break-in burglary, hit and run cases or in misfires from the guns. Glasses can be most common physical fit as they can describe and identify quickly due to their characteristics like the thickness of the glass, colour and refractive index. They can directly use for matching after identifying such familiar characters for linking the suspect or perpetrator of the crime [6,8].

3.2. Duct Tapes:

Duct tapes found in association to crimes involving abductions, homicides or felony. Duct tape end matching for physical fit id analyzed for possibly linking the suspect and victim of the crime. Research has indicated that duct tape end matching is valid as physical fits which can be potential trace evidence. In a study conducted to identify duct tape for end matching it found that false-positive rate ranged from 0.00 to 0.67 for torn tape and cut tape, it was 0.00 to 0.33. It indicates a smaller number of misidentification. However, duct tape as evidence should back up with other corroborating evidence [6,9].

3.3. Fibre and hair evidence:

In most of the crime scenes, most commonly fibre and hair evidence observed as trace evidence. Identifying and examining the fibre or hair evidence can link to the perpetrator most of the time. In a famous case of Dr. Jeffrey McDonald who accused of murdering his pregnant wife and two children, one of the evidences that linked him to the murder was the fibre found under the body of his wife which was matched to the pyjamas of the doctor [6,10].

There are several other cases where direct and indirect physical fit had established a link between the perpetrator to the crime. In another case of a young girl abducted a in Tuscon area in California in the mid-1980s, the perpetrator was convicted based on the dent marks and pink paint traces from the girl’s bicycle. The paint trace from the bike was an indirect forensic physical fit that linked the perpetrator to the crime [11].

Conclusion:

Forensic physical fit can be a useful indicator for investigation of crimes which can lead in aiding the research and linking the missing mysteries in a crime. Several types of physical fit evidence have gone through validation studies to analyze that physical fit as the evidence does not lead to misidentification. Physical fit can be used as evidence upon careful examination and further analyzed using different instruments based on the type of evidence for a little understanding of their characteristics. Physical fits are most helpful when used in tracing or linking and for aiding in investigations. Physical fits can become most compelling evidence in court if they are further analyzed technically and explained and connected with a successful realignment of pieces objects to indicate that they were once part of a whole purpose.

References:

1.FBI. (1999, October). Retrieved from Federal Bureau of Investigation: https://archives.fbi.gov

2.Mistek, E., Fikiet , M., & Khand, S. (2018, November). Toward Locard’s Exchange Principle:Recent Developments in Forensic Trace Evidence Analysis. Retrieved from National Institute of Justice:https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/toward-locards-exchange-principle-recent-developments-forensic-trace-evidence

3.Novak, T. (n.d.). Physical Fit/ Fracture Match Analysis. Retrieved from American Society of Trace Evidence Examiners: https://ift.tt/2BxMIHt

4.Jayaprakash, P. T. (2011). Practical relevance of pattern uniqueness in forensic science. Forensic Science International, 403.

5.Brooks, E., Prusinowskia, M., & Gross, S. (2020). Forensic Physical Fits in Trace Evidence Discipline: A Review. Forensic Science International , 4-7.

6.Harris, H., & Lee, H. (2019). Introduction to Forensic Science. Taylor & Francis.

7.Yekutieli, Y., Shor, Y., Wiesner, S., & Tsach , T. (2012). Physical Matching Verification.

8.Glass Evidence Analysis. (n.d.). Jones and Bartlett.

9.Tulleners, F., & Braun, J. (2011). The Statistical Evaluation of Torn and Cut Duct Tape Physical End Matching.

10.Montaldo, C. (2019, July 16). The Case of Convicted Killer Jeffrey MacDonald. Retrieved from ThoughtCo: https://ift.tt/3fKH2sy

11.Duisen, M. (2014, August 17). 10 Crimes Solved By A Tiny Piece Of Evidence. Retrieved from Listverse: https://ift.tt/2Bwtoun

Author:

Swetha Sadanandan, Intern at Dept. of forensic Sci & Criminal Investigation (June 2020), Legal Desire Media & Insights

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