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Juniper Publishers- Open Access Journal of Case Studies

Juniper Publishers-Open Access Journal of Case Studies

Authored by Elena Kochova

Abstract

X-Linked adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) is a rare neurodegenerative disorder with a wide clinical spectrum. It is characterized by progressive cerebral demyelination, spinal cord axonal degeneration and adrenal and testicular insufficiency. ALD is caused by mutations in the ABCD1 gene, involved in the metabolism of fatty acids. The main biochemical feature is elevated plasma and tissue levels of very long-chain fatty acids and the diagnosis relies on their measurement in plasma along with MRI studies. Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation is the preferred treatment in patients with the severe, cerebral form of ALD, offering a halt in disease progression, but only when instituted in the early stages of cerebral demyelization. The aim of this review is to summarize the present understanding of ALD, as well as to overview the advances in the diagnostics and treatment.

Keywords: Adrenoleukodystrophy, X-linked, Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, ABCD1

Abbreviations: ABC: Adenosine Triphosphate - Binding Cassette; ALD: Adrenoleukodystrophy; ALDP: Adrenoleukodystrophy Protein; ALDRP: Adrenoleukodystrophy Related Protein; AMN: Adrenomyeloneuropathy; Cr: Creatine; Ch: Choline; HSCT: Hematopoietic Stem Cell Therapy; MR: Magnetic Resonance; MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging; NAA: N-Acetylaspartate; VLCFA: Very Long Chain Fatty Acids

Introduction

Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) is an X-linked inherited disorder that affects the central nervous system, peripheral nerves, adrenal cortex and testes. Also known as Schilder’s disease and sudanophillic leukodystrophy, ALD is a peroxisomal metabolic storage disease caused by mutations in the ABCD1 gene, involved in the degradation of very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFA). The consequent accumulation of VLCFA leads to progressive central demyelination and adrenal insufficiency.

The first case of X-linked ALD (X-ALD) was likely described in 1910 [1]. Siemerling and Creutzfeldt in 1923 described it as “bronzed sclerosing encephalomyelitis” [2]; another synonym for ALD is Siemerling-Creutzfeldt disease. Biaw [3] in 1970 assigned the term adrenoleukodystrophy [3]. Since then, significant advances have been made in elucidating the pathophysiological mechanisms of the disease, as well as in the diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

X-ALD is a rare disease, with an overall estimated incidence of 1:17,000, including symptomatic female heterozygotecarriers [4]. This makes it the most common of the leukodystrophies. The clinical presentation of ALD is strikingly diverse, from rapidly progressive, fatal neurological involvement in young children, to slowly progressive adrenomyeloneuropathy in older children or adults. The symptoms of ALD overlap with the other numerous leukodystrophies which makes the diagnosis of ALD challenging.

Genetics and Pathophysiology

The breakthrough in the ALD field came in 1993 when mutations in the ABCD1 gene were identified in patients with ALD [5]. The gene is mapped to Xq28 and encodes the adrenoleukodystrophy protein (ALDP), one of four members of the peroxisomal subfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) proteins. ALDP is involved in the transport of very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFA) from the cytoplasm into the peroxisomes, where the oxidation and degradation of VLCFA takes place.

A gene that is closely related to ABCD1 has been mapped to chromosome 12q11. This gene is referred to as ALDR or ABC2. Its gene product, referred to as ALDRP, has 66% homology to ALDP [6], is also localized to the peroxisomal membrane and can correct the defect in very long chain fatty acid metabolism in cultured fibroblasts of X-ALD patients. The relationship between ALDP and ALDRP is still unclear, but it has been proposed that variations in the expression of ALDRP may account for the wide range of phenotypic expression that is a specific feature of X-ALD. Also, these similarities between ALDP and ALDRP have led to the hypothesis that over expression of ALDRP might be used as a therapeutic strategy.

The inactivating mutations in the adrenoleukodystrophy gene, most of which are unique to particular families, have been defined in more than 400 families. In general, there is no correlation between the nature of the mutation and the phenotype. In one family the same mutation was associated with 5 widely different phenotypes [7]. De novo mutation of ABCD1 occurs in less than 8% of ALD patients [8].

The defect in the ALDP results in accumulation of VLCFA, which in turn produces an intense inflammatory response in the white matter of the central and peripheral nervous system. The VLCFA accumulation itself is thought to be responsible for the adrenal and testicular involvement. The inflammatory mechanism that leads to demyelination is not completely understood, but thought to result from activation of brain macrophages and astrocytes bearing CD1 molecules that recognize lipid antigens which are abnormally acylated by the excessive VLCFA. The precise mechanism by which the accumulation of VLCFA leads to the inflammatory demyelination that is the cause of the neurologic disability is still unclear.

Clinical Presentation

Most male X-ALD patients develop adrenocortical insufficiency in childhood and progressive myelopathy and peripheral neuropathy in adulthood. A subset of male patients, however, develops a fatal cerebral demyelinating disease, cerebral ALD. Female carriers can also develop progressive myelopathy and peripheral neuropathy, but generally at a later age than males. They only very rarely develop adrenocortical insufficiency or cerebral ALD. The three major disease categories are:

The severe, cerebral demyelinating form (cerebral childhood form) - appearing in mid-childhood (4-8 years);

Spinal cord demyelination and axonal degeneration (adrenomyelopathy, AMN) - occurring in men in their 20s or later and older women.

Impaired adrenal gland function (Addison’s disease or Addison-like phenotype). AMN is the most frequent form, affecting 60% of affected males and 50% of female carriers [4].

The cerebral childhood form occurs in approximately 35% of ALD patients. The mean age of onset is 7 years, with the earliest onset noted at around 3 years. It develops in three phases:

A.An asymptomatic latent phase, when there are no clinical signs, but MRI changes of demyelination are present (the first lesions can be evident at around 4 years of age);

C.A terminal phase with significant motor, sensory and cognitive sequellae, which leads to coma and death.

The symptoms depend on the topography of the demyelienation. The parieto-occipital forms are the most frequent [4], the initial symptoms consisting of cognitive visuomotor and visuospatial abnormalities and immediate memory deficits. Behavioral changes ensue, such as hyperactivity or attention deficit and emotional troubles, along with sensory disorders (visual field amputation, diminishing visual acuity, impaired auditory discrimination) and motor disorders (pyramidal syndrome of the lower extremities, gait abnormalities, hemiparesis, cerebellar ataxia). Sometimes seizures also occur. Once the symptoms appear, they progress rapidly and lead to an almost absolute loss of all cognitive functions, tetraplegy and blindness, and a vegetative state ensues usually within 3 years.

The frontal form presents with a frontal syndrome and hemiparesis. Sometimes adrenal insufficiency is the first sign of the disease, appearing well in advance of the neurological symptoms. The cerebral demyelinating form of ALD can also occur at a later age or in adulthood, when it assumes a progressive course similar to the childhood form.

Adrenomyeloneuropathy (AMN) is the more frequent form of ALD. The symptoms appear at an age of 20-30 in men and 40-50 in half of the female carriers and typically consist of spastic paraparesis with disturbed gait as a result of posterior spinal cord degeneration and urinary problems such as dysuria and urgency. Sometimes clinical signs of peripheral neuropathy (demyelinating, axonal, or both) can be seen. The symptoms are progressive and lead to a significant motor disability, but the progression varies and can extend over 20 years, without remission.

Adrenal insufficiency may be diagnosed after the appearance of neurological symptoms or decades in advance. Testicular dysfunction usually occurs late in the course of the disease. AMN in female carriers assumes a less severe form; the peripheral neuropathy is rarer, but neurogenic pain is a more frequent and severe feature. A certain percentage of men diagnosed with AMN will later develop the cerebral form. There is no biological marker that can be used for predicting the evolution of the disease on an individual level, but in general the earlier the onset, the faster the progression [4].

A significant proportion of the patients with ALD will develop adrenal insufficiency at some point [9], which affects primarily the glucocorticoid, followed by the mineralocorticoid function. ALD is the most frequent cause of adrenal insufficiency in males over the age of 4, and the second most frequent cause of adrenal insufficiency in adults [9]. It assumes the usual clinical presentation - melanodermy, followed by adrenal crisis with its usual clinical presentation. It can be the only sign of ALD for decades before the appearance of neurological signs.

Diagnostic Workup

The diagnosis of ALD is primarily based on biochemical and MRI studies. The biochemical signature of ALD is elevated plasma VLCFA levels, present in all affected males. Three parameters are analyzed: the concentration of C26:0, the ratio of C24:0 to C22:0 and the ratio of C26:0 to C22:0. All three parameters are usually elevated. With methodological advances, false positives and false negatives in males are exceptionally rare. The abnormality is present at birth and remains relatively constant throughout life. In contrast, only a proportion of female carriers have elevated plasma VLCFA; therefore targeted mutation analysis is the most effective means for carrier detection. MRI diagnostics are of great value, most frequently showing signs of symmetrical demyelination, with contrast accumulation at the edge of the lesions.

In the childhood cerebral form, MRI of the brain shows signs of demyelination with hyposignal in the T1 sequence and hypersignal in the T2 and FLAIR sequence, which allows for localization of the lesions and evaluation of the inflammatory character of the lesions based on the gadolinium uptake. Cortical atrophy can be seen in the later stages [4]. Studies have shown that the degree of MRI abnormality as assessed by the Loes scoring system [10], when coupled with age, aids in predicting the future course and in selecting patients who are candidates for bone marrow transplantation [11].

Newer modalities like MRI spectroscopy have provided new inputs into the disease.Proton MR spectroscopy is useful for determining the early signs of disease in patients even when MRI is still normal. MR spectroscopy shows abnormal metabolite ratios in the areas of abnormal T2 signal, but also in normal-appearing brain regions, including a decrease in N-acetylaspartate (NAA)/Creatine (Cr) and NAA/Choline (Ch) and an increase in Ch/Cr [12]. Lipids-lactate peaks are also valuable markers for the demonstration of the presence and progression of lesions. The metabolic ratio alterations seem to be proportionate to the severity of the ALD phenotype. Interestingly, higher VLCFA levels are associated with a lower NAA/Cr ratio [13].

The spectroscopic changes are not disease-specific, but are a sensitive indicator of disease progression [14] and can be useful in the evaluation of therapeutic interventions [15]. In AMN, cerebral and spinal MRI shows no changes in the early stages of the disease. The lesions, namely progressive atrophy of the spinal cord, appear in the later stages, but never show gadolinium uptake. Spectroscopy reveals axonopathy in the morphologically normal cerebral white matter, with reduced NAA/Cr and NAA/ Ch, most prominent in the internal capsule and parieto-occipital white matter [16].

Although MR abnormalities are rare in heterozygous women, even when symptomatic [17], the spectroscopy shows axonal abnormalities, which may be indicative of the distal axonopathy that represents the principal neuropathological change in AMN [18]. Wilken and colleagues examined the prognostic significance of MR spectroscopy for patients who received bone marrow transplants [15]. They found an association between outcome and the N-acetylaspartate levels in affected brain white matter. A high level was associated with a positive outcome, whereas low levels had a negative predictive value, as did increased levels of choline-containing compounds. Abnormal NAA/Ch ratios in the regions adjacent to the MRI lesions are a negative predictor for progression [14].

Genetic testing for ABCD1 mutations is useful in the identification of female carriers, as they may have normal VLCFA levels. This investigation should be performed in all females who are at risk of being a carrier for ALD, but is only possible when the mutation in the family is known. Prenatal diagnosis is important for the prevention of the disease, and is performed by measuring VLCFA levels in cultured amniocytes and ABCD1 mutational analysis in chorionic villus samples.

Therapeutic Options

The application of immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive drugs has failed to prevent progression of cerebral neuroinflammation. Initially proposed treatments were Lorenzo’s oil and statin therapy as well as VLCFA intake restriction, but clinically relevant benefit from such treatments has not been proven and they remain controversial. The preferred treatment option for preadolescent patients in the early stages of childhood cerebral ALD is allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT).

This therapy was first described in 1990 [19] and several studies have shown promising results, when the treatment is performed early in the course of cerebral involvement and a human antigen-matched donor is available. The procedure can stop the progression of demyelination and stabilize the neurological symptoms. The outcome is significantly better when there are no neurological deficits and the MRI Loes severity score is less than 9 at the time of treatment. Despite the success of HSCT reports, numerous factors complicate the widespread usage of this treatment for ALD patients. The procedure should not be performed in patients with advanced disease, as the treatment is unable to stabilize neurological involvement in patients with advanced ALD.

It has been shown that MR spectroscopy might be predictive of clinical outcome after HSCT and may be further substantiated by using additional new imaging approaches, such as diffusion tensor imaging and magnetization transfer MRI [20]. While disease progression of patients before HSCT is mainly characterized by a further increase of elevated cholinecontaining compounds as an indicator of active demyelination, a positive outcome after HSCT is found to be correlated with high NAA levels in affected white matter before HSCT.

The positive effects of HSCT when instituted at an early stage of the disease may validate the efforts to institute newborn screening programs [21]. The benefit of HSCT was also shown for the first time in a patient with adult-onset ALD, with only mild symptoms remaining 2 years post-treatment [22]. The overall transplant-related mortality in HSCT patients is relatively high and non-myeloablative HSCT is being introduced as an alternative to myeloablative HSCT, with promising outcomes. For patients where a matched donor is unavalaible, umbilical cord blood stem cells are an alternative.

4-Phenylbutyrate (4-PB) has attracted interest as a potential therapeutic option for ALD. It has shown to improve the capacity of cultured ALD-cells to metabolize VLCFA. In the mouse model, it was shown that 4-PB reduces VLCFA levels in the brain and adrenal gland. 4-PB has the effect of increasing the expression of ALDRP, which, as noted previously, may be able to substitute for the function of ALDP. Its clinical effects have not yet been evaluated. ABCD2, the gene encoding ALDRP, when over expressed in cultured human fibroblast cell lines from ALD patients can normalize peroxisomal β-oxidation and prevent accumulation of VLCFA. Thus, the pharmacological induction of ABCD2 should be able to compensate for the lack of functional ABCD1 and is a potential attractive therapeutic target. Pujol and coworkers have shown that valproic acid induces expression of ABCD2 in human ALD fibroblasts. Other potential therapeutic strategies such as antioxidant therapy and neuroprotective therapy with insulin-like growth factor and neurotrophin-3 are being experimented upon. Preliminary work using lentiviralbased gene therapy in two young ALD patients shows short-term neurological benefits similar to HSCT [23].

It is now clear that early diagnosis is perhaps the single most important factor in treating ALD patients as there is no effective treatment for patients experiencing severe neurological symptoms. Efforts to add newborn screening for ALD and other peroxisomal disorders are moving forward; ALD screening has been initialized in the Netherlands as of 2015 and the USA since 2016. As in many fields, advances in gene therapy have the potential to revolutionize the treatment of ALD.

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Juniper Publishers- Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

Drivers of Success for Community Based Natural Resource Projects in Coast Region of Kenya

Authored by Nyiro Charles Wanje

Abstract

The paper is part of a World Bank funded study on documentation of community based natural resource management (CBNRM) projects in the Coastal region of Kenya. The paper takes a look at the drivers of success for community based natural resource projects. The drivers of success are discussed in this paper because they address some of the objectives of the study. The study was prompted by the realization that there are many initiatives under taken by environmental and natural resource management projects that have the potential to serve as a showcase for the benefits of conserving natural resources. A key attribute to achieving this is to ensure quality documentation of these initiatives and their drivers of success. It is because of this that this researcher undertook documentation of the drivers of success in order to generate the information needed to stimulate uptake and adoption with the aim of disseminating the information on such projects to various segments of the coastal communities for uptake.

The study involved 40 participants representing 40 CBNRM groups and five FGDs comprising 5-10 participants drawn from five CBNRM groups. Data was collected using interviews, document reviews, observations and focused group discussions. After collection the data was analysed both thematically and numerically and presented using descriptive statistics. All relevant ethical issues were considered. The study provides a basis upon which environmental and natural resource projects can emulate in order to be successful. It also fills a gap in the existing literature as well as contributing towards the continuing discourse on natural resource management.

Keywords: Natural resource management; Drivers of success; CBNRM Groups; Communication, Documentation; Kenya Coastal Development Project; World Bank

Abbreviations: ACC: African Conservation Centre; ACES: Association for Coastal Ecosystem Services; ANO: The Africa Nature Organization; AWF: African Wildlife Foundation; BMU: Beach Management Unit; CBC: Community Based Conservation; CBNRM: Community Based Natural Resource Management; CBOs: Community Based Organizations; CDA: Coast Development Authority; CDTF: Coast Development Tourism Fund; CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; CWS: Community Wildlife Services; EAWS: East African Wildlife Society; EU: European Union; FGDs: Focus Group Discussions; GOK: Government of Kenya

Background

Introduction

The Government of Kenya received financing from the International Development Association (IDA] and the Global Environment Facility (GEF] towards the Kenya Coastal Development Project (KCDP] applied part of the proceeds to finance a Consultancy Service to document and disseminate successful community based natural resource sub-projects. KCDP covers a period of 6 years and was in its third year of implementation with a development objective of improving management effectiveness and enhancing revenue generation of Kenya’s coastal and marine resource.

The project is comprised of the following four components:

a. Component 1: Sustainable Management of Fisheries Resources;

b. Component 2: Sound Management of Natural Resources;

c. Component 3: Support for Alternative Livelihoods; and

d. Component 4: Capacity building, Monitoring and Evaluation System, Project Management and Communication, Development Fund of the Coast.

The project was implemented by 7 agencies of the Government of Kenya (GoK), comprising of Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, State Department of Fisheries, Kenya Wildlife Service, Kenya Forestry Research Institute, Coast Development Authority, Ministry of Lands and National Environmental Management Authority. The activities of these agencies, within the KCDP project, are coordinated by a centralized Project Coordinating Unit (PCU) based at Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI).This paper relates to Component two (Sound Management of Natural Resources].

Rationale for the project

Under component 2 (Environmental governance and integrated coastal management), KCDP was promoting the uptake and adoption of best practices in natural resource management. In order to generate the information needed to stimulate uptake and adoption, the project sought to identify, evaluate and analyse successful community based natural resource projects in the coast region with the aim of disseminating the information on such projects to various segments of the coastal communities for uptake.

KCDP and Sustainable development in the Coastal community

Kenyans living in Coast province are among the poorest in the country, despite the province's considerable potential for economic growth from tourism, fisheries and other investments. KCDP project has helped to increase economic opportunities for coastal communities by promoting environmentally-sustainable tourism and fisheries, equitable sharing of tourism and fisheries revenues, and investment in rural micro, small and medium-sized enterprises. The project has promoted sustainable management of tourism and fisheries resources in line with the government's Vision 2030, which identifies tourism as an engine of growth, job creation, poverty reduction and wealth generation in the Coastal region. It has supported governance reforms of fisheries management in an exclusive economic zone and promoted research in near-shore fish stocks to increase sustainable and profitable fishing practices.

The KCDP project has also improved the management and regeneration of natural resources and biodiversity of the Coastal and marine environments, reflecting the environmental sustainability theme of the World Bank’s Country Partnership Strategy for Kenya. These objectives are complemented by sustainable livelihoods in a sound governance framework including spatial planning and land capability mapping, integrated coastal management and compliance with regulations and safeguards. The project has also promoted dialogue amongst national partners and regional stakeholders, and established a Community Village Fund to build capacity of micro projects through grants.

Further, the KCDP project has the potential to positively affect Kenya's coastal region, with far reaching changes in the livelihoods of the people at the Coast. This, however, can only happen if the inhabitants of the coast see the opportunity and participate in the project. Other than improving the livelihoods of the coastal inhabitants, the project has far-reaching effects beyond the coast. It has the potential to serve as a showcase for the benefits of conserving natural resources. A key attribute to achieving this is to ensure quality documentation of these initiatives. In the past, conservation of biodiversity was carried out by establishing parks and zoos and creating strict laws regarding the use of wild plants and animals. This form of natural resource management was costly and inefficient. In last decade, awareness has grown regarding the close links between biodiversity loss, human population and poverty.

It is now commonly accepted that the people who live in close contact with, and are dependent upon, wild plants and animals for their survival must be fully involved in all efforts to find solutions to address biodiversity loss. The latter forms the principle of what has evolved into Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM), which is a paradigm shift in conservation and natural resource management. The goals of CBNRM are to increase resource user participation in NRM decisions and benefits by restructuring the power relations between central state and communities through the transfer (devolution) of management authority to local level organizations. The CBNRM is compatible with the International treaties as it has a framework for integrating with economic and social development. Participation in development is a process through which people with a legitimate interest (stakeholders) influence and share control over development plans and decisions and resources that affect them. In the recent past, various countries have been redefining natural resource management to directly engage local communities. For instance in Tanzania, the Wildlife Conservation policy [1] moves beyond the outreach efforts of community conservation employed by the Tanzania National Park Authority (TANAPA) by proposing real engagement through community based conservation WD [2]. Amongst other countries which have adopted CBNRM approaches are India, China, USA, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Malawi, Zambia and Lesotho Shackleton et al. [3].

Natural Resource Management

Natural Resource Management is the management of natural resources such as land, water, soil, plants and animals, with particular focus on how the management affects the quality of life for both present and future generations. Natural Resource Management is congruent with the concept of sustainable development, the principle that forms the basis for sustainable global land management and environmental governance to conserve and preserve natural resources. Natural resource management specifically focuses on scientific and technical understanding of resources and ecology and the life supporting capacity of those resources.

Natural resource management lays emphasis on sustainability and can be traced back to the early attempts to understand the ecological nature of American rangelands and resource conservation. In the 20th Century the concept took a more holistic, national and even global form culminating in the Brund land Commission and the advocacy of sustainable development Brund land, [4]. At that time the state had a controlling role in formulation and management of NRMs. In many cases these systems led to failure and disillusionment as they were protectionist styles of management Lyons, Lewis & Carter [5,6].

In addition the colonial-era management practices based on "fines and fences" frequently failed to achieve conservation goals because they alienated people from their traditional resource base, thereby reducing the economic and social value of natural resources and causing over-exploitation and mismanagement. Finally, the state management system had inherent weakness as it was seen as a domain of either state sector institutions endowed with appropriate authority, expertise and other resources or private sector institutions pursuing individual economic interests and benefits. These weaknesses led to the paradigm shift from state-controlled NRM into Community Based Conservation groups (CBC).

Community Based Conse rvation

Community Based Conservation (CBC) became the recognized trademark of what many claimed was a "new conservation" unfolding across Africa Hulme and Murphee [7,8]. In response to the recognized failure of top-down approaches to development and ecological limits of protectionist ("fortress") conservation, "the community" has now become the catchall solution for effective conservation and development Western ,Wright, McNeely, McNaughton [9,10]. CBC shifts the focus of conservation from nature as protected through exclusive state control to nature as managed through inclusive, participatory, community-based endeavors. To effectively make this shift, CBC devolves natural resource management to local communities and hence is often referred to as community-based natural resource management.

Community Based Natural Resource Management

Community based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) is an approach to conservation and development that recognizes the rights of the local people to manage and benefit from the management and use of natural resources. It entails transferring back to communities' access and use rights, empowering them with legislation and devolved management responsibilities, building their capacity and creating partnerships with public and private sector actors to develop programmers for the sustainable use of a variety of natural resources.

Many traditional systems of natural resource tenure are known to have been sustainable and even beneficial for conservation. There is need therefore to enable this tradition to continue despite modern changes in economy and society. CBNRM concept addresses both human and natural resource issues such as the long term benefits of present and future generations given the inefficiency of state management. In addition, CBNRM addresses objectives such as equity, poverty alleviation and empowerment of marginalized user communities. The management concept focuses on communities for assessing natural resource uses, potentials, problems, trends and opportunities. In addition it also takes action dealing with adverse practices and dynamics with corporation and support from other actors linked horizontally (e.g. other communities) and vertically (e.g. higher level or external entities such as local or district government, regional bodies, government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Universities or other organizations that have interest in resource conservation and management.

The Key elements of CBNRM include detailed operation plans developed and agreed to by all concerned stakeholders. In addition, the approach is that communities are backed by a legal framework on rights, benefits and economic incentives to take substantial responsibility for sustained use of resources. The CBNRM groups operate under the following principles Bond et al. [11]

a. The benefits of managing a resource should exceed the costs and the resource must have a measurable value to the community.

b. Communities living with the resource should receive higher benefit than those who do not.

c. Smaller groups are more likely to better manage their resource than larger groups.

d. The community that lives with the resource should also be the group that makes the decisions over the resource and the same as the group that benefits.

e. Communities should benefit from practicing good management. Similarly, when communities do not invest in management, then the benefits should fall.

The main benefits accruing from adopting these measures can be categorized into direct and indirect benefits. Direct benefits include investments in rural infrastructure through community based projects, direct cash dividends and from partnerships, employment opportunities with private sector, employment opportunities with CBOs, indirect benefits maintenance or growth of stocks of natural resources, capacity building, opportunities to diversify local economy and integration into the local market .Despite the process towards devolution in the process of natural resource management the central governments still maintains a role; protecting the wider "public goods" such as watersheds, biodiversity carbon sinks and other ecological services; establishing the policy, legal and social frameworks and conditions needed for local management to succeed; mediating conflicts; providing technical assistance; facilitating and regulating private activity; addressing local inequalities of marginal groups so that downward accountabilities of organizations receiving devolved authority is assured; helping communities to defend their rights including protection against powerful external groups such as mining and timber companies and organized traders and supporting local capacity among others Shackleton et. al. [3].

In the Maasai Mara - Serengeti ecosystem the concept of CBNRM is gaining ground. For instance Tanzania has redefined its wildlife conservation agenda to directly engage local communities Goldman [12]. In Kenya, there has been increased involvement of local communities in the management of local resources especially around protected areas e.g. through KWS community wildlife service and specific projects implemented by NGOs and Government agencies in different areas and involving different resources. Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) is still relatively new in Kenya. Therefore the policy, legislative and institutional frameworks are yet to be developed that would support genuine CBNRM groups. Further there is need to reorient the existing institutions towards greater inclusion of diverse range of stakeholders in natural resource management.

Methodology

Study design

The study adapted a mixed methods design.

Many definitions of mixed methods are available in the literature (e.g., see Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007) [13,15]. For purposes of this study, mixed methods research was defined as a research approach or methodology:

i. Focusing on research questions that call for real-life contextual understandings, multi-level perspectives, and cultural influences

ii. Employing rigorous quantitative research assessing magnitude and frequency of constructs and rigorous qualitative research exploring the meaning and understanding of constructs;

iii. Utilizing multiple methods (e.g., intervention trials and in-depth interviews];

iv. Intentionally integrating or combining these methods to draw on the strengths of each

v. Framing the investigation within philosophical and theoretical positions.

The study design integrated both data triangulation (quantitative and qualitative) using several data sources e. g. primary and secondary sources and methodological triangulation - using multiple methods to achieve results e.g. literature review, use of focus groups, key informants and consultants observations.

Approach

A tried and tested participatory approach which engaged key stakeholders including: biodiversity conservation, wildlife management/conservation, forestry, fisheries, ecotourism, environment, water management, water, sanitation and hygiene, agriculture, livestock and climate change, opinion leaders, key informants and project beneficiaries was applied. The approach according to the TOR was supported by field visits to capture and document success stories from projects. Salient components of the methodology including initial assessments of existing project document, policies, and adaptation practices. Whilst carrying out the assignment, the consultant took cognizance of gender related and other cross-cutting development issues. The team recognizes the importance of good data collection instruments and methods as well as proper use of statistical tools for identifying and recruiting representative beneficiary groups and to tell success stories and document in still pictures and videos.

Phases of the project

The methodology involved a logical sequence of the following specific iterative activities which may be divided into three main phases:

a. Inception phase: This phase focused on desk reviews, development of standard questions and formats for data collection as well as outlines for stories and story lines for documentaries.

b. Field Study: This phase involved Data Collection/ Engagement with beneficiaries and stakeholders. It used several data gathering tools.

c. Drafting and Finalization of Deliverables: Upon completion of the field work, the team gathered to prepare the deliverables [16].

Data collection methods

The study involved use of both primary and secondary data. While secondary data was sourced from relevant literature, primary data was obtained from the selected respondents for this study. The following methods were used for data collection:

Literature Review

Secondary data was collected through literature reviews of documents that were of relevance to the project from various stakeholders.

Field Surveys

Field surveys were undertaken in the project site for a period 21 days. The study focused on CBNRM groups as units of analysis. The groups were be categorized into 9 [17] sectors namely wildlife, forestry, fisheries, eco/tourism, environment, waste management water, sanitation & hygiene, agriculture & livestock and mining.

Experts suggested names of CBNRM groups to participate in the field surveys during a consultative forum as shown in Table 1 below. A structured questionnaire was used to obtain primary data from the relevant officials, and beneficiaries in CBNRM groups. The questionnaire also guided focus group discussions especially in the CBRM groups visited that attracted many members. Key informant discussions were also held with specific officials of the groups e.g. project coordinators, chairmen, secretaries etc. During the field study the team ensured that pictures and videos were taken to document the process. Authority in Kilifi. Experts were drawn from the following sectors: biodiversity conservation, wildlife management/ conservation, forestry, fisheries, eco/tourism, environment, waste management, water, sanitation & hygiene, agriculture, livestock, sustainable development and climate change. The consultant presented draft criteria to participants which was discussed, refined and adapted as the criteria for identification of successful sub-projects.

Data processing

The data entry was done at a central place in tandem with data collection. After reviewing the completed questionnaires to rectify any data collection errors, the data input was made into a database to ensure quality control. Data was analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative data was analysed by consolidating emerging themes that emerged from the study while quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics and presented as charts and percentages.

Results

Community members implementing various natural resource based projects were asked to name what they perceived as the drivers to the success of their projects. Those interviewed included group members of each group visited and community members outside the project but who benefited from the project. On average, the study interviewed 400 community members. They listed community ownership, strong group cohesion, partnership with stakeholders, technical support, and availability of market for products, strong group leadership, availability of volunteer services, tangible benefits to community and good will/support from government. Rationale behind Drivers of Success.

Community ownership means that the community has accepted the project and owned it. In most cases, ownership came through membership registration by payment of a fee and participation in decision making. Ownership ensured that members came up with creative ways to raise funds to sustain the project even when donor support was not forthcoming. Strong group cohesion in most cases meant that the relationship of the members went beyond official group business to social issues. Members frequently called and visited each other's homes to find out the well-being of each other. When one group member fell sick, members visited them to find out what they can do. In one case, a male member of a group whose wife was bedridden for a period of three months received assistance from women in the group who fetched water and cleaned the house on behalf of the sick female member of the group.

Partnership with stakeholders meant that groups were able to identify other groups, donors, professionals etc. who shared in their vision and worked together to further their goals. Watamu Turtle Watch in their Turtle Rehabilitation project, for example, partnered with fishermen associations to ensure that when they sported a turtle that is hurt as they went about their fishing business, they quickly informed the project coordinator so a rescue operation could be organized. Similarly to finance such operations, the project needed funding and so they partnered with Local Ocean Trust, a private, non-profit organization committed to the protection of Kenya’s marine environment.

Technical support is necessary because most community projects are run laypeople whose levels of education are mostly below high school. These people therefore lack the knowledge required to deal with the technical issues for the project. For example, the Mikoko pamoja project. The Mikoko Pamoja Steering Group (MPSG) provides technical support to the Mikoko Pamoja Community Organization (MPCO) and the project coordinator while the project is supported by the Association for Coastal Ecosystem Services (ACES), a charity registered in Scotland. It emerged that this technical support was a major contributor to the success of this project. Similarly in Seaweed farming, KCDP has supported the seaweed farmers in the south coast in several ways: construction and setting up of seaweed model farmers (10x10 m plots) with 300 lines each; supported the construction of seaweed drying racks in Kibuyuni, Mkwiro and Funzi sites; supply of farming implements; supply of seaweed seeds; engagement of a seaweed buyer hence market and training in seaweed farming. Because the famers themselves have no capacity to perform these tasks, this may be described as technical support. The study revealed that this contributed immensely to the success of the projects [18-20].

Availability of market for products is another factor: Most of the projects that produced seedlings for sale failed because of lack of market for the seedlings. For example although the Gede Community Forest Association's Jamii Villas project had a nice hotel and accommodation facility, they hardly received any visitors because the facility was not known. Members were looking for a marketing firm that would help them market it abroad as a tourist destination. This is unlike projects like Mikoko Pamoja’s Hewa Kaa (Carbon Trading) who have market for their product (Hewa kaa) for the next 20 years through ACES with whom they have signed a contract.

Strong group leadership was necessary to bring group members together direct their efforts and inspire and motivate them to work hard to achieve set objectives. Most of those projects that scored the minimum 7 had lack of motivation as driver of failure. In most cases, the study found that the group lacked a leader to give direction to the members. Table 2 Poor leadership in projects like Wasini Women Group's: Wasini Women mangrove boardwalk, led to constant wrangles over money generated, projects to be undertaken, workers etc hence little progress in meeting objectives. Successful projects like Jimbo Environmental Group’s Mangrove conservation project ensured a level of empowerment of its members in respect to ownership and protection of their coastal and marine resources, held regular meetings, ensured that members understood the constitution guiding the group, ensured that there was transparency in handling of fund generated by the project, and decision arrived by consensus. This ensured fair play and participation by all members.

Availability of volunteer services as a factor required that members provide services for free to ensure that project does not spend funds to undertake activities instead of re-investing the money. At Rabai Cultural Village's Kaya Mudzi Muvya project, members volunteer their time and take turns on a daily basis to ensure there are people at the village even when there are no visitors. Members spend time planting seedlings, practicing traditional songs, making carvings etc. For most of those projects that scored the minimum 7 members refused to volunteer due to lack of motivation and leadership.

Tangible benefits to community means that the community must feel the benefits of the project for them to support it. For example for the community to see the benefits of Kaya Mudzi Muvya project which meant just living a huge chunk of land under forest and not cutting the trees, project members used funds generated from the project to build a nursery school, bring tap water for the community to use, pay school fees for children from disadvantaged families etc. Good will and support from government came out as a critical factor. This especially was true in terms of enforcement of rules by the project. At Mvera's Mida Creek Community Board walk, for example, conservation of mangroves has been made easy by the presence of KWS officers. While community vigilance will round up and catch people cutting mangroves, once caught they are handed over to the KWS police and undergo a government prosecution system. This support has meant that people know how serious it is to destroy mangroves.

Project Success by Gender

The data collected showed that there was a variation in project success based on gender with projects implemented by women being more successful as shown in figure 2 below. This is because women are more honest and would not for example misuse money meant for the project. As found out in Rabai Cultural village's Kaya Mudzi Muvya’s project, women were the most consistent in coming to the village to attend to issues in the village Project Success by Amount of Funding. There was a significant positive correlation between amount of project funding and project success rate. Projects with higher funding appeared to be more successful. The mean funding size for successful community projects was approximately Ksh. 6 million. This is because with more funding, groups were able to complete the projects until they started making profits. Once members started sharing the profits, they got motivated to spend more time in the project and this ensured that they had something to take home and feed their families. Project Success by Donor Agency

It was shown that there was a significant variation in project success depending on the type of donor agency (df=3, F=11.69, p<0.001) [20]. Projects funded by NGOs had the highest success score while those funded by the community had the lowest. This is because projects funded by NGOs ensured constant flow of funds. For example Mikoko Pamoja's Hewa Kaa project has been receiving funding consistently from ACES for the last four years and will continue to do so for the next 16 years. Those funded by the community like Jilore.

Community Forest Association

Mwatate CBO, Pate Mangrove Conservation, Tuungane Challa Chini, Kilifi Chivara, Tumuone Mama Group, Taita Environmental Initiative, Kizingo Development Group which were at the bottom of the ranking because they lacked money to undertake activities. Consequently this led to lack of motivation amongst members

Correlation of Results Chain Parameters with Project Success

All the seven results chain variables demonstrated statistically significant correlation with project success. Project outcomes were the most highly correlated to project success while project status was least correlated. This means that respondents associated the success of projects more with the outcome of the projects more than with the status of the project. So that although Rabai Cultural Village's Kaya Mudzi Muvya project does not have a high status, the outcome which is conservation of the forest, presence of schools and water for the community made people view the project as most successful.

Discussion And Conclusion

Based on the above analysis, the researchers made the following conclusions

Biggest drivers of success for community based projects

Community ownership, strong group cohesion, partnership with stakeholders, technical support, availability of market for products, strong group leadership, availability of volunteer services, tangible benefits to community and good will / support from government are the biggest drivers of success for community based projects. Organizations supporting these projects therefore should emphasize these attributes to ensure success. Community ownership means that the community has accepted the project and owned it. In most cases, ownership came through membership registration by payment of a fee and participation in decision making. Ownership ensured that members came up with creative ways to raise funds to sustain the project even when donor support was not forthcoming. Strong group cohesion in most cases meant that the relationship of the members went beyond official group business to social issues. Members frequently called and visited each other’s homes to find out the well being of each other. When one group member fell sick, members visited them to find out what they can do. In one case, a male member of a group whose wife was bedridden for a period of three months received assistance from women in the group who fetched water and cleaned the house on behalf of the sick female member of the group. Partnership with stakeholders meant that groups were able to identify other groups, donors, professionals etc who shared in their vision and worked together to further their goals. Watamu Turtle Watch in their Turtle Rehabilitation project for example partnered with fishermen associations to ensure that when they sported a turtle that is hurt as they went about their fishing business, they quickly informed the project coordinator so a rescue operation could be organized. Similarly to finance such operations, the project needed funding and so they partnered with Local Ocean Trust, a private, not for profit organisation committed to the protection of Kenya's marine environment.

Technical support is necessary because most community project are run by laypeople whose levels of education was mostly below high school. These people therefore lacked the knowledge required to deal with the technical issues for the project. For example for the Mikoko pamoja project The Mikoko Pamoja Steering Group (MPSG) provides technical support to the Mikoko Pamoja Community Organization (MPCO) and the project coordinator while the project is supported by the Association for Coastal Ecosystem Services (ACES), a charity registered in Scotland. It emerged that this technical support was a major contributor to the success of this project. Similarly in Seaweed farming, KCDP has supported the seaweed farmers in the south coast in several ways: construction and setting up of seaweed model farmers (10x10 m plots) with 300 lines each, supported the construction of seaweed drying racks in Kibuyuni, Mkwiro and Funzi sites, supply of farming implements, supply of seaweed seeds, engagement of a seaweed buyer hence market and training in seaweed farming. Because the famers themselves have no capacity to do these, this may be described as technical support. The study revealed that this contributed immensely to the success of the projects.

Availability of market for products: Most of the projects that produced seedlings for sale failed because of lack of market for the seedlings. For example although the Gede Community Forest Association's Jamii Villas project had a nice hotel and accommodation facility, they hardly received any visitors because the facility was not known. Members were looking for a marketing firm that would help them market it abroad as a tourist destination. This is unlike projects like Mikoko Pamoja's Hewa Kaa (Carbon Trading) who have market for their product (Hewa kaa) for the next 20 years through ACES with whom they have signed a contract. Strong group leadership was necessary to bring group members together direct their efforts and inspire and motivate them to work hard to achieve set objectives.

Most of those projects that scored the minimum 7 had lack of motivation as driver of failure. In most cases, the study found that the groups lacked a leader to give direction to the members. Poor leadership in projects like Wasini Women Group’s Wasini Women mangrove boardwalk led to constant wrangles over money generated, projects to be undertaken, workers etc hence no progress in meeting objectives. Successful projects like Jimbo Environmental Group's Mangrove conservation project ensured a level of empowerment of its members in respect to ownership and protection of their coastal and marine resources, held regular meetings, ensured that members understood the constitution guiding the group, ensured that there was transparency in handling of funds generated by the project, and decisions arrived by consensus. This ensured fair play and participation by all members. Availability of volunteer services: This required that members provide services for free to ensure that the project does not spend funds to undertake activities instead of re-investing the money. At Rabai Cultural Village’s Kaya Mudzi Muvya project, members volunteer their time and take turns on a daily basis to ensure there are people at the village even when there are no visitors. Members spend time planting seedlings, practicing traditional songs, making carvings etc. For most of those projects that scored the minimum 7 members refused to volunteer due to lack of motivation and leadership.

Tangible benefits to community means that the community must feel the benefits of the project for them to support it. For example for the community to see Figures 1 & 2 the benefits of Kaya Mudzi Muvya project which meant just living a huge chunk of land under forest and not cutting the trees, project members used funds generated from the project to build a nursery school, bring tap water for the community to use, pay school fees for children from disadvantaged families etc. Good will/support from government: this especially came in terms of enforcement of rules by the project. At Mvera's Mida Creek Community Board walk Conservation of mangroves has been made easy by the presence of KWS officers. While community vigilance will round up and catch people cutting mangroves, once caught they are handed over to the KWS police and undergo a government prosecution system. This support has meant that people know how serious it is to destroy mangroves.

Projects with greater women participation tend to perform better

The data collected showed that there was a variation in project success based on gender with projects implemented by women being more successful as shown in the Figure 3-5. This is because women are more honest and would not for example misuse money meant for the project. As found out in Rabai Cultural village's Kaya Mudzi Muvya’s project, women were the most consistent in coming to the village to attend to issues in it. More opportunities therefore should be given to women in these projects.

Positive correlation between amount of project funding and project success rate

The study revealed that there is a significant positive correlation between amount of project funding and project success rate. Projects with higher funding appear to be more successful with the mean funding size for successful community projects being approximately Ksh. 6 million. Projects with higher funding appeared to be more successful. The mean funding size for successful community projects was approximately Ksh. 6 million. The study revealed that with more funding, groups were able to complete the projects until they started making profits. Once members started sharing the profits, they got motivated to spend more time in the project as this ensured that they had something to take home and feed their families. Projects should therefore be funded at those levels to ensure success.

Projects funded by NGOs have the highest success rate

Results from the study also indicate that projects funded by NGOs have the highest success score while those funded by community being the lowest. This is because projects funded by NGO ensured constant flow of funds. For example Mikoko Pamoja's Hewa Kaa project has been receiving funding consistently from ASSETS for the last four years and will continue to do so for the next 16 years. Those funded by the community like Jilore Community Forest Association, Mwatate CBO, Pate Mangrove Conservation, Tuungane Challa Chini, Kilifi Chivara, Tumuone Mama Group, Taita Environmental Initiative, Kizingo Development Group, were at the bottom of the ranking because they lacked money to undertake activities. Consequently this led to lack of motivation amongst members. This calls for more interventions by NGOs in support of community projects.

Project outcomes are the most highly correlated to project success

It may be concluded from the findings ofthis study that project outcomes are the most highly correlated to project success while project status is least correlated. This means that communities associate the success of projects more with the outcome of the projects than that with the status of the project. So that although Rabai Cultural Village’s Kaya Mudzi Muvya project does not have a high status (income obtained is not significant, most members in the project have not gone beyond primary school etc.) , (Figure 5) the outcome which is conservation of the forest, presence of schools and water for the community makes people rate the project as most successful. This calls for emphasis on project outcomes amongst community projects. These outcomes will be most visible if the community views them as contributing to improvement of their lives.

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Glycemic Control and Sleep Quality Response to Life Style Modification among Obese Type 2 Diabetic Patients- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

Background: Recently attention is directed to the potentially negative reinforcing relationships that may exist between sleep disturbance, obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) as good sleep quality is crucial for maintaining an effective glycemic control and improving the quality of life of patients with diabetes.

Objective: The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of weight reduction via life style intervention on glycemic control and sleep quality among obese type 2 diabetic patients.

Material and methods: Eighty obese T2DM patients (43 males and 37 females) with body mass index (BMI) ranged from 30 to 36Kg/m2, their age ranged from 42-56 years were selected from the outpatient diabetic clinic of the King Abdulaziz Teaching Hospital were randomly assigned to life style intervention group (group A, n=40) or control group (group B, n=40). Polysomnographic recordings for sleep quality assessment, body mass index (BMI), the quantitative insulin-sensitivity check index (QUICKI), homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance index (HOMA-IR), glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) were measured before and after 6 months at the end of the study.

Results: There was a significant increase in the mean value of total sleep duration, sleep efficiency, sleep onset latency and QUICKI in group (A) after 6 months of aerobic exercise training, while, awake time after sleep onset, rapid eye movements (REM) latency, BMI, HOMA-IR) and glycosylated hemoglobin (HBAlc significantly reduced after 6 months of life style intervention, however the results of the control group were not significant. Moreover, there were significant differences between both groups at the end of the study.

Conclusion: Life style intervention is an effective modality for modifying glycemic control and sleep quality among obese type 2 diabetic patients.

Keywords: Glycemic control; Sleep quality; Life style intervention; Obesity; Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Introduction

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) prevalence has been rising steadily over the past 3 decades, and is largely attributable to the dramatic increase in obesity rate [1,2]. Over 300 million people worldwide live with diabetes now, and if the current prevalence rate continues unabated, over 550 million people will be living with diabetes by 2030 [3,4]. Diabetes represents a major health problem because of its high prevalence, morbidity and mortality, its influence on patient quality of life, and its impact on the health system [5-7].

The quality of sleep is relevant to the regulation of energy and glucose homeostasis [8]. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a serious chronic disease whereby the body ineffectively use glucose as a fuel due to relative insulin deficiency caused by insulin resistance [9]. Impairments in the daily sleep/wake cycle due to sleep disturbances, including shift working, obstructive sleep apnea, and insomnia, are known to increase the risk of T2DM [10]. Tang and colleagues reported insufficient sleep quality and quantity as a risk factor of developing T2DM and poor glycemic control among sufferers [11]. Sleep duration has also been associated with higher risk of developing T2DM as well representing a strong predictor of glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), with sleep loss being associated with increased HbA1c [12]. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) factor "sleep efficiency” is one of the components that can influence glycemic control [13]. A previously published study suggests negative correlation between HbAlc and sleep efficiency [14].

The strong association between obesity and sleep disorders and disturbances is in line with past research regarding the negative impact of excess weight [15-17]. Obesity, a disease associated with its own litany of health consequences and symptomatology, has been independently associated with an increased risk of sleep disorders, disruptions and poor sleep quality [15]. For example, excess weight is a strong predictor of daytime sleepiness and sleep-disorders [17].

A number of epidemiological studies describe a connection between T2DM, and sleep disorders [18]. Studies suggest that a high proportion of T2DM sufferers also manage comorbid sleep apnea, particularly males and those overweight. Estimates from recent studies range from 18% to 36%, suggesting the importance of addressing sleep disorders among this patient group [19-21]. A large-scale survey study found that sleep problems were by up to 40% of individuals with T2DM, with sleep apnea, and restless legs symptoms the most likely among sufferers [22]. Individuals with T2DM who are obese also frequently report sleep problems, with research suggesting that all three may represent a complex interwoven triad of conditions [23,24].

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of weight reduction via life style intervention on glycemic control and sleep quality among obese type 2 diabetic patients.

Patients and Methods

Subjects

Eighty obese T2DM patients (43 males and 37 females) with body mass index (BMI) ranged from 30 to 36Kg/m2, were selected from the outpatient diabetic clinic of the King Abdalziz Teaching Hospital. They were checked for fasting/random glucose levels. Only participants have fasting blood sugar levels more than 5.6mmol/l or random blood sugar level more than 7.8mmol/l (impaired blood sugar) were included in this study and were further checked for type 2 diabetes mellitus as per recent American Diabetes Association criteria i.e. fasting blood sugar ≥7.0mmol/l or post-prandial blood sugar ≥11.1 mmol/l (2h plasma glucose 11.1 mmol/l during an oral glucose tolerance test) and glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c%) > 6.5% [25]. Exclusion criteria included history of major psychiatric disorder as mania or alcohol or substance abuse or other neurological disorders, significant depressive symptoms, kidney insufficiency, congestive heart failure, pregnant female patients, hepatitis and respiratory failure, current use or use within the past month of psychoactive, hypnotic, stimulant or analgesic medications, shift work or other types of self-imposed irregular sleep schedules, smoking or caffeine consumption greater than 300mg per day. A detail clinical history and physical examinations were conducted which included the age, sex, symptoms suggestive of diabetes and family history of diabetes. Physical examinations included anthropometric measurements such as height, weight, body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference. Participants were included two groups; group (A) received treadmill aerobic exercise training on treadmill and diet regimen. However, group (B) was considered as a control group and received no exercise training or diet regimen. A cardiologist conducted an initial clinical examination for all participants and participants were randomized for a weight reduction group (group A) or control group (group B). This study was approved by the Ethical Committee for Scientific Research, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University. All participants provided written informed consent.

Measurements

Sleep measures: All participants underwent polysomnographic (PSG) recording before and after the exercise training. For the pre-intervention assessment, PSG recording was performed over 2 nights. The first night served as an adaption night; 48 hour later, the participants returned for another night of PSG recording. The post-training PSG assessment occurred at least 30 hours after the last exercise session. The participants arrived at the sleep laboratory at 21:00; the PSG recording started and finished according to each volunteer's habitual sleep schedule. The room used for the recordings had a large comfortable bed, acoustic isolation, and controlled temperature and light. A trained sleep technician using a digital system (Philips-Respironics, USA) conducted recordings. The following parameters were analyzed:

I. Total sleep time (in min), defined as the actual time spent asleep;

II. Sleep latency (in min), defined as the time from lights out until the onset of three consecutive epochs of stage 1 or deeper sleep;

III. Sleep efficiency, defined as the percentage of total recording time spent asleep;

IV. Wake after sleep onset (in min), defined as the total time scored as wakefulness between sleep onset and final awakening;

V. Sleep stages 1, 2, 3, and 4 as well as REM sleep as percentages of total sleep time; and

VI. Latency to REM, defined as the time from sleep onset until the first epoch of REM sleep [26].

Chemical analysis: Blood samples were collected from the antecubital vein at the beginning and end of the treatment program. Subjects had blood drawn at the same time in the morning on each occasion (between 8 and 10AM). Subjects lay supine for 10 min prior to the blood collection. 10ml of blood was drawn into a tube containing few milliliters of sodium citrate; plasma was separated from the blood by centrifugation (120-x g for 15min) at room temperature to determine level of glycosylated hemoglobin (HBA1c). However, human insulin was measured with an insulin kit (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN, USA) using a cobas immunoassay analyzer (Roche Diagnostics). Insulin resistance was assessed by homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR). HOMA-IR = [fasting blood glucose (mmol/l) _ fasting insulin (mlU/ml)]/22.5 [27]. However, insulin sensitivity was assessed by The quantitative insulin-sensitivity check index (QUICKI) using the formula: QUlCKl=1/(log(insulin) + log(glucose)) [28]. All samples were assayed in duplicate, and the mean of the paired results was determined.

Measurement of anthropometric parameters: Body weight of all participants was measured with (HC4211, Cas Korea, South Korea) while wearing hospital gowns and undergarments. Where the height was measured with a digital stadiometer (JENIX DS 102, Dongsang), so Body Mass Index (BMI) was computed as BMI= Body weight/Height2.

Procedures

Following the previous evaluation, all patients were divided randomly into the following groups:

Patients in group (A): Were submitted to forty minutes moderate intensity aerobic exercise sessions on a treadmill (the initial, 5-minute warm-up phase performed on the treadmill (Enraf Nonium, Model display panel Standard, NR 1475.801, Holland) at a low load, each training session lasted 30 minutes and ended with 5-minute recovery and relaxation phase) either walking or running, based on heart rate, until the target heart rate was reached, according to American College of Sport Medicine guidelines [29]. The program begun with 10min of stretching and was conducted using the maximal heart rate index (HRmax) estimated by 220-age. First 2 months = 60-70% of HRmax second 4 months = 70-80% of HRmax . Each session was continued for 30 minutes; 3 sessions / week for 3 months [30]. All subjects of group (A) were instructed to take an individual balanced energy-restricted dietary program to obtain weight loss .The mean daily caloric intake was about 1200kcal/day, based on a macronutrient content <30% fat and 15% protein as recommended by the World Health Organization [31]. At the initial interview with a dietitian, obese subjects was given verbal and written instructions on how to keep diet records, with food weighed and measured. The same dietitian monitored dietary intake. The subjects maintained a detailed record of food intake, and received weekly nutritional counseling. Obese subjects were instructed to substitute low-fat alternatives for typical high-fat foods, to increase the consumption of vegetables and fresh fruits, and to substitute complex carbohydrates, such as whole-grain bread and cereals. Dietetic help was given every 2 weeks by the dietitian when anthropometric measurements were performed; in addition, each subject was seen by a physician monthly to perform a clinical evaluation, standard electrocardiogram, and measurement of blood pressure and heart rate [32].

Patients in group (B): Received no training or diet regimen for three months.

Statistical analysis

The mean values of the investigated parameters obtained before and after six months in both groups were compared, using paired "t” test. Independent "t” test was used for the comparison between the two groups (P<0.05).

Results

The two groups were considered homogeneous regarding the demographic variables. The mean age of the group (A) was 49.58±5.61 years, and the mean age of group (B) was 47.32±5.44 years. There was no significant differences in age, body mass index (BMI), duration of diabetes, body fat, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, fasting glucose, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), serum insulin and blood lipids between both groups (Table 1).

BMI = Body Mass Index; HbA1c = Glycosylated Hemoglobin; HDL= High Density Lipoprotein; LDL= Low Density Lipoprotein

BMI: Body Mass Index; QUICKI: The quantitative insulin-sensitivity check index; HOMA-IR: Homeostasis Model Assessment-Insulin Resistance Index; HbA1c = Glycosylated Hemoglobin; REM: rapid eye movements; (*) indicates a significant difference, P < 0.05.

There was a significant increase in the mean value of total sleep duration, sleep efficiency, sleep onset latency and the quantitative insulin-sensitivity check index (QUICKI) in group (A) after 6 months of aerobic exercise training, while, awake time after sleep onset, rapid eye movements (REM) latency, body mass index (BMI), Homeostasis Model Assessment-Insulin Resistance Index(HOMA-IR) and glycosylated hemoglobin (HBAlc) significantly reduced after 6 months of life style intervention (Table 2), however the results of the control group were not significant (Table 3). In addition, there were significant differences between both groups at the end of the study (Table 4).

Discussion

The prevalence of sleep disturbances and deprivation has been increasing dramatically over the past decade, together with the growing epidemic of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity worldwide. Several meta-analyses have confirmed the independent association between sleep duration and sleep quality with the risk of developing T2DM [33,34], However, Gupta and colleagues reported that about 25% of patients with T2DM were diagnosed with sleep disorders (SD) and over 75% reported experiencing at least one sleep symptom regularly, where SD and symptoms were strongly associated with obesity [35]. Recent epidemiological studies have suggested that there is an association between glycemic control and sleep disturbances in patients with T2DM [36], therefore effective weight management treatment in T2DM patient implemented in the primary care setting [37]. The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of weight reduction via life style intervention on glycemic control and sleep quality among obese type 2 diabetic patients.

Concerning sleep quality parameter, there was a significant increase in the total sleep duration, sleep efficiency and sleep onset latency in group (A) after 6 months of life style intervention (aerobic exercise and diet regimen), while, awake time after sleep onset and REM latency significantly reduced compared with values obtained prior to life style intervention (Table 2). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study for life style intervention and quality of sleep among type 2 diabetic patients as all previous studies were concerned with the life style intervention and obstructive sleep apnea and the impact of exercise training and quality of sleep.

Reid et al had Seventeen sedentary elderly subjects with insomnia who had 16 weeks of aerobic physical activity. The clearly stated that physical activity improved sleep quality on the global Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) score, sleep latency sleep duration, daytime dysfunction and sleep efficiency [38]. Where, Lira et al. conducted a study on fourteen male sedentary, healthy, elderly volunteers performed moderate training for 60 minutes/day, 3 days/week for 24 weeks at a work rate equivalent to the ventilatory aerobic threshold. They proved that sleep parameters, awake time and REM sleep latency decreased after 6 months exercise training in relation baseline values [39]. In addition, Yang and colleagues completed a systematic review with meta-analysis of six randomized trials and provided data on 305 participants (241 female). Each of the studies examined an exercise training program that consisted of either moderate intensity aerobic exercise or high intensity resistance exercise. The duration of most of the training programs was between 10 and 16 weeks. All of the studies used the self-reported Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index to assess sleep quality. Compared to the control group, the exercise group had significantly reduced sleep latency and medication use [40]. While, Chen and coworkers enrolled twenty-seven participants in 12 weeks of Baduanjin exercise training, they proved that overall sleep quality, subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, sleep efficiency, and daytime dysfunction significantly improved after 12 weeks of intervention [41]. In addition, Santos et al had twenty-two male, sedentary, healthy, elderly volunteers performed moderate training for 60min/day, 3 days/week for 24 week at a work rate equivalent to their ventilatory aerobic threshold, their findings suggest that aerobic exercise training increased aerobic capacity parameters, decreased REM latency and decreased time awake [42]. Moreover, Passos and colleagues concluded that a 4-month intervention of moderate aerobic exercise delivered to twenty- one sedentary participants with chronic primary insomnia had polysomnographic data significantly improvements following exercise training, where total sleep time, sleep efficiency and rapid eye movements significantly increased. In addition, sleep onset latency and wake time after sleep onset significantly decreased following exercise training [43].

Regarding, the mechanism underlying the effect of life style intervention on sleep, although the mechanisms by which life style intervention can improve sleep quality are not well understood. However, extra energy consumption, endorphin secretion, secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines or modulation of body temperature in a manner that facilitates sleep for recuperation of the body in addition to reduced resting plasma concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines may be the possible mechanisms for sleep quality parameter improvement because of life style intervention [40,44-47].

Regarding glycemic control, the results of the present study proved that life style intervention (aerobic exercise and diet regimen) significantly improved insulin sensitivity and reduced insulin resistance because of weight reduction. These results agreed with Angelico et al. proved that 5%-10% weight loss as a result of diet regimen modulates insulin resistance in patients with metabolic syndrome [48], also Albu and colleagues mentioned that lifestyle modifications with diet and exercise are essential part of the management of the diabetes obese patient as weight loss leads to improvement in the glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, reductions in lipid levels [49]. While, weight reduction program consisted of diet restriction and exercise, which was conducted on thirty-five obese T2DM patients for twelve weeks (diet restriction and exercise), induced significant reductions in body weight, serum leptin levels, improvements in lipoprotein profile, insulin sensitivity and glucose control [50]. Several mechanisms have been proposed to be responsible for the increases in insulin sensitivity after exercise training. These include increased post-receptor insulin signaling, increased glucose transporter protein and mRNA, increased activity of glycogen syntheses and hexokinase, decreased release and increased clearance of free fatty acids, increased muscle glucose delivery and changes in muscle composition [51]. Moreover, energy restriction resulting in even modest weight loss suppresses endogenous cholesterol synthesis that leads to a decline in circulating lipid concentrations and because of increased insulin sensitivity [52,53]. Through decreasing deposition of total fat and intra-abdominal fat [54].

Conclusion

Life style intervention is an effective modality for modifying glycemic control and sleep quality among obese type 2 diabetic patients.

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juniperpublishersophthalmology · 3 years

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Juniper Publishers- JOJ Ophthalmology

A Review of the Data on the Recently Approved Xen Surgical Gel Stent in the Management of Glaucoma- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

The cornerstone of glaucoma surgery includes trabeculectomy and tube shunting procedures, which utilize an ab externo approach to divert aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to the sub conjunctival space. The XEN Gel Stent is a 6.0mm tube consisting of porcine-derived collagen that similarly creates a non-physiologic shunt but through an ab interno approach. The XEN gel stent has the potential to effectively lower intraocular pressure and medication use with lower complication rates than traditional glaucoma surgery. This mini-review surveys the data of the XEN implant in current literature.

Introduction

Glaucoma maintains a significant disease burden worldwide. It is the most common cause of irreversible blindness, affecting over 64 million individuals [1]. Therapy is focused on lowering intraocular pressure (IOP) by a variety of methods, including topical medications, laser, and incisional surgeries. These surgical interventions-traditionally trabeculectomy or tube shunt surgery-rely on creating an additional subconjunctival reservoir for aqueous humor (AH) drainage and subsequent resorption. However, the three-year results of the Tube Versus Trabeculectomy Study found failure rates of 15 and 28 percent, respectively. Serious postoperative complications such as persistent corneal edema, endophthalmitis, and chronic or recurrent iritis were also reported [2].

There has been a recent proliferation in procedures and medical devices that provide similar IOP-lowering effects to trabeculectomy or tube shunt surgery with fewer complications. One such product is the XEN Glaucoma Treatment System (Allergan, Inc., Irvine, CA, USA), which consists of the XEN Gel Stent and XEN Injector. The XEN stent is derived from porcine collagen, measuring 6.0mm long with inner diameters of 140|im, 63|im, or 45|im, although the 45|im stent is currently recommended. Previous studies in animal models have demonstrated no significant inflammatory response to implantation and no signs of degradation of the stent itself [3]. It was recently approved by the United States FDA in November 2016 for use in refractory glaucoma, including those with a history of failed prior surgical treatment, primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG), and pseudoexfoliative glaucoma with open angles that are inadequately controlled on maximal medical therapy.

The XEN stent is inserted into the angle through the scleral spur via an ab interno approach with its disposable injector. Ideally, the device should extend 3.0mm posteriorly from the limbus and into the subconjunctival space and 2.0mm anteriorly into the anterior chamber (AC). Once placed in an aqueous environment, the device hydrates, becoming soft and flexible, helping to maintain its position. By taking advantage of the resistance to flow in a cylinder as determined by the Hagen- Poiseuille equation, the XEN45 produces a pressure gradient 7.56mm Hg at the physiologic flow rate of AH within the AC, at 2.5 microliters/minute [4]. Thus, this stent can theoretically reduce the risk of hypotony seen in IOP-lowering surgeries despite being a valve less device. The fact that it is inserted ab interno obviates the need from conjunctival dissection, theoretically reducing the potential for conjunctival fibrosis and leaving the ophthalmologist with the option to perform ab externo surgeries if necessary in the future.

XEN Gel Stent in the Literature

Several studies were performed evaluating the XEN Gel Stent with multiple inner diameters. Sheybani, Dick, and Ahmed reported on the results of 49 eyes of 49 patients treated with the XEN140 stent (140um internal diameter) without the use of mitomycin C (MMC) [5]. Of the 49 patients, 22 received previous glaucoma surgery, and nine (18%) had a prior laser trabeculoplasty. Complete success was defined as an IOP <18mm Hg and a greater than 20% reduction of IOP at the primary endpoint of 12 months without glaucoma medications. Criteria for treatment failure included visual acuity less than or equal to light perception, need for additional glaucoma surgery, or a less than 20% reduction of IOP at 12 months. This study revealed that the mean IOP reduced from 23.1±4.1mm Hg preoperatively to 14.7±3.7mm Hg at 12 months, a 36.4% decrease. In all, 40% met the criteria for complete success and 88.9% for partial success. Three patients (6%) failed the study criteria and required additional surgery. The most common complication was needling (47%), with nearly half of the cases occurring within the first month.

Another early study by Sheybani and Ahmed used the XEN140 and XEN63 stent (63um internal diameter) without MMC in patients undergoing phacoemulsification [6]. Of the 37 eyes, 47.1% were considered complete successes while 85.3% were qualified successes. Mean IOP significantly decreased from 22.4±4.2mm Hg preoperatively to 15.4±3.0mm Hg at 12 months, and mean medications were significantly reduced from 2.5±1.4 to 0.9±1.0.

One of the first reports involving the exclusive use of the XEN45 stent (45um internal diameter) involved 31 eyes receiving phacoemulsification and MMC treatment at the time of implantation. Mean IOP and medication use were reduced significantly from 20.8±4.6mm Hg to 13.1±3.6mmHg at 12 months and 2.7±1 to 0.9±1.1 at 12 months, respectively, and without significant complications [7].

Pérez-Torregrosa et al. [8] were among the first to describe the efficacy of the XEN45 in patients with mild and moderate glaucoma (defined as a mean deviation between 0 and -12dB on Humphrey 24-2 perimetry) [8]. Additionally, subjects included in this study had pressures<30 while being managed on two or more medications. Twelve months after concomitant phacoemulsification and XEN45 implantation, 27 of 30 (90%) subjects met the successful treatment criteria of IOP≤18mm Hg with no glaucoma medications. The authors reported several intra operative complications, including sub conjunctival hemorrhage with MMC instillation (36.6%), and minor hemorrhage intra camerally (86.6%) and at the scleral exit point (90%). A total of six (20%) stents required relocation, and one eye required re-implantation of the device. One subject was excluded from analysis due to extensive subconjunctival hemorrhage after MMC injection and another due to extrusion of the device into the subconjunctival space intra operatively.

Two studies have addressed the effect of simultaneous implantation and phacoemulsification versus the XEN alone. One such study involved 567 eyes, of which 54% underwent XEN implantation only, and 46% the combined implantation and phacoemulsification [9]. There were no inclusion or exclusion criteria regarding the grade of POAG, and data from all three diameters of XEN stents were not separated. The data revealed a mean preoperative IOP of 21.9±4.2mm Hg that was significantly decreased at 12 months (15.7mm Hg), 24 months (15.0mm Hg), and 36 months (13.2mm Hg) of follow-up. Likewise, a significant decrease in medications by 74, 77, and 74 percent from the mean of 2.7 was observed at 12, 24, and 36 months, respectively. The percentage of patients who were converted to another procedure was 4% by 12 months, 5% by 24 months, and 5% by 36 months. After analysis, it was determined that there was no statistical difference in mean IOP or medications between eyes receiving the implant alone and the combination procedure. Likewise, a 75 patient cohort demonstrated no significant difference in IOP reduction between the standalone and combination procedures at 12 months [10]. The most frequent complications from this study were needling (15.4%) and hypotony defined as an IOP <6mm Hg on postoperative day 1 (12.6%).

The most recent article involving the XEN stent evaluated its use in eyes with suboptimal IOP and medication intolerance, medication noncompliance, or maximum therapy with no history of glaucoma surgery [11]. A total of 13 eyes underwent XEN45 implantation in addition to phacoemulsification if previously phakic. At the 12-month end point. 41.7% were complete successes, with a>20% drop in IOP and discontinuation of all glaucoma medications, while an additional 25% met the IOP goal but remained on at least one medication. Among the reported complications, four eyes required needling, two eyes developed choroidal detachment and hypotony requiring systemic steroids and atropine treatment, one implant extruded, and two eyes required subsequent trabeculectomy.

Discussion

The current literature available for the XEN Gel Stent demonstrates its effect on IOP and medication reduction in addition to reducing severe intra operative and postoperative complications. The data also suggests a lower early failure rate than those published from trabeculectomy and tube shunt surgery. There remains little data on long-term outcomes of the XEN stent at this time, inherent with a newly approved procedure. Thanks to its earlier implementation outside the USA, data are available for the XEN from mild to refractory glaucoma. However, this data should be evaluated in light of the fact that some studies were performed using the XEN140 and XEN63 stents, which are no longer recommended by the manufacturer.

Of the complications encountered with the XEN stent, subconjunctival hemorrhage and needling were most common, and extrusion of the device was the most common serious complication. It should be noted that the rates of needling varied widely in the literature, from 15.4% to 47%. This could be due in part to varying degrees of experience with the XEN stent and injector as well as different technical approaches such as the use and dose of anti fibrotic used at the time of implantation.

It is well known that cataract extraction provides some improvement in IOP [12]. Thus, the efficacy of the XEN stent may be confounded by those studies in which patients also underwent phacoemulsification. In fact, higher preoperative IOP, older age, and greater anterior chamber depth have all been shown to correlate to the amount of IOP improvement with phacoemulsification in medically managed glaucoma patients [13]. However, two studies with the XEN stent reported no significant difference in IOP reduction and medication use postoperatively between XEN implantation combined with phacoemulsification and XEN implantation alone. Indeed, this is one relationship that will be unlikely to be discerned until more data from more eyes is available for analysis.

Looking forward, several clinical trials in various stages of progress will look to further elucidate the properties of the XEN device and its role in the management of glaucoma. One trial - NCT02036541 - is a Phase 3 trial currently past its primary completion date that will further assess the XEN45 in patients with refractory glaucoma. Another is a parallel assignment, Phase 4 trial for XEN45 in moderate POAG patients (NCT02006693). Yet another study, soon to begin enrollment, will assess the in vivo effects of various interventions on outflow at Schlemm's canal, of which the XEN stent is part of the surgical branch (NCT02807935).

Conclusion

At present, there are multiple surgical options available for effective glaucoma management. The XEN Gel Stent is one such intervention that provides advantages over traditional glaucoma surgery and newer minimally invasive glaucoma surgery (MIGS) procedures while lowering IOP and medication dependence. The device is well tolerated by the ocular tissues and can be placed via an ab interno approach but still creates a non- physiologic subconjunctival shunt or bleb to increase aqueous outflow without the use of a valve system. Since it involves little manipulation of the conjunctiva, implantation of the XEN stent does not preclude future conjunctival surgeries if necessary. Questions remain as to what long-term outcomes of the XEN Gel Stent will demonstrate, as well as which types of glaucoma patients stand to benefit the most from the surgery. Larger-scale studies are needed to resolve these questions and confirm the initial optimistic results.

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juniperpublishersoceanography · 3 years

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Current Trends in the Philippines' Shrimp Aquaculture lndustry: A Booming Blue Economy in the Pacific- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

Shrimp aquaculture industry is an important source of income in the inter-tropical countries of Southeast Asia and other inter-tropical developing countries. The shrimp industry has grown rapidly and generates billions of dollars every year in trade and employs millions of people globally. World production of shrimp both captured and farmed is around 7 million metric tons. Shrimp is one of the most important internationally traded fishery commodities in terms of value. Annual reports show that exports of shrimp are currently worth more than 10 billion US dollars or 16% of all fishery exports. Currently, about 40% of the world catch of shrimp is from farming. However, the proportion of farmed shrimp in international trade appears to be much higher. The industry boomed rapidly in the Pacific particularly in the Southeast Asian region specifically in countries like the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, and Myanmar among others. The Philippines currently ranks 11th in world aquaculture production of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, etc. by principal producers in the latest report released by FAO in 2013 having 0.815 million metric tons of total aquaculture production and a 1.16% share to the global production of 70.2 million metric tons. The country's total aquaculture production has amounted to over 1.98 billion US dollars. This study presents the current situation of the Philippines' Shrimp Aquaculture Industry. This study is the first to correlate Shrimp Aquaculture Industry and the Blue Economy in the Philippines. Moreover, it presents the issues and challenges of the industry and hopes that all of the stakeholders will work hand in hand to achieve a more progressive Aquaculture Industry.

Keywords: Shrimp aquaculture industry; Blue economy; Penaeus monodon; Litopenaeus vannamei

The Philippines' Shrimp Aquaculture Profile

In the Philippines, shrimp farming started in the 1980's. It was in the year 1992, when the Philippines produced the largest shrimp catch of about 120,000 metric tons [1]. This made the Philippines known to the world as one of the leading shrimp producing countries. The biggest share of shrimp harvest in the Philippines comes from the brackish water ponds with contribution from marine fish cages and marine fish pens. There are 271 brackish water shrimp farms (3,617.8ha) registered at the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources of the Philippines as of 2013. Penaeus monodon (Black Tiger prawn), an export commodity of the country is cultured in 48% (1,772.6ha) of the overall recorded shrimp farms, mostly are polycultured with fish specifically Chanoschanos (Milkfish). Litopenaeus vannamei (Pacific White shrimp) are cultured in 27% (909.4ha) of the total shrimp farms while the remaining 25% (935.8ha) are cultured with other endeavor shrimps which is secondary to Oreochromis niloticus (Tilapia) and milkfish and some are involved in polyculture with crabs (Table 1) [2].

Note: *12 farms showed no data on productive area; **18 farms showed no data on productive area.

Source: Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Philippines (BFAR).

PH Fisheries-Aquaculture Industry in the Global Perspective

Based from the Philippine Fisheries Profile 2014, a study conducted by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries of the Republic of the Philippines, The Philippines ranked 11th worldwide in the world aquaculture production of fish, crustaceans, mollusks, etc. by principal producers. The Philippines produced a total of 815,008MT and has global percentage share of1.16%. It is valued at about 1.98 billion USD and has a global percentage share of 815,008MT and has global percentage share of 1.16%. It is valued at about 1.98 billion USD and has a global percentage share of 1. 31% (Table 2). The fisheries sector including the aquaculture fisheries sub-sector boosts the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at 1.6% and 1.8% at current and constant 2000 prices respectively. These values translate to some stunning 197 billion PHP for current prices and 130 billion PHP for constant prices of the country's GDP of 12,643 billion PHP (current prices) and 7,164 billion PHP (constant prices).

Note: These countries are those with production of 140,000 tons or more in 2014.

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

Moreover, the foreign trade performance of fishery and aquaculture industry remains impressive. In 2014, it registered a net surplus of 954 million dollars with total export value of 1,274 million USD and import value of 320 million USD. The recorded export volume in 2014 is striking 316,863 MT. The three major highly valued export commodities are Tuna, Seaweeds, and Crustaceans (Crabs &Shrimps/Prawns). Ranking 3rd most highly valued export commodity, Shrimps contribute 120 million USD to the total export in value in 2014 higher than in 2013 export earnings of 67.5 million USD. Shrimps are exported in fresh, chilled, and frozen forms having a total value of 67 million USD or 56% of the total shrimp export revenue. Although the 2014 shrimp exports decreased by 6.75% in volume (MT), it registered a higher record in value of 78% USD from the previous year’s export. Major destination of Philippine shrimp export and fishery product exports (in terms of value) are USA, 25%; Japan, 15.5%, Hongkong, 7%; China, 6.3%; Germany, 6%; United Kingdom, 4.3%; Taiwan, 3.5%; Spain, 2.5%; France, 1.1%; Canada, 1%; and other countries, 27% (Figure 1).

Alongside with the Philippines' fishery and aquaculture export trading is its import performance. The total import value for 2014 was 52% contributed by three major import commodities namely: 46% in chilled/frozen fish, 4.7% in flour, meals, and pellets of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, and1.6% in shrimp feeds. These three major import commodities have an aggregated value of 167 million USD out of the 320 million USD total import value. Shrimp feeds were mostly sourced from Taiwan, 1.6%; Vietnam, 0.4%; Thailand, 0.3%; Malaysia, 0.1%; and Australia, 0.05% having a total import value of 5.15 million USD.

Towards an Integrated and Sustainable Blue Economy

In a concept paper published by the United Nations on Blue Economy in 2015, Blue Economy is defined as constituting a sustainable development framework that addresses equity in access to, development of, and the sharing of benefits from marine resources. Comparing to Green Economy, the study reported that Blue Economy also incorporates the same principles of low carbon, resource efficiency, and social inclusion but grounded in a developing world context and fashioned to reflect the circumstances and needs of countries whose future resource base relies on marine/aquatic ecosystems (Figure 2).

On the other hand, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has embraced the concept on Blue Economy and has incorporated it into its Global Initiative on Blue Growth in support of food security, poverty alleviation, and sustainable management of aquatic resources. Moreover, FAO emphasizes that Blue Economy is the central part of the broader sustainable development agenda. Consequently, the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation views Blue Economy as an approach to advance sustainable management and conservation of ocean and coastal resources and ecosystems and sustainable development in order to foster economic growth.

Just recently during the APEC Ocean-related Ministerial Meeting in 2014, ministers issued the Xiamen Declaration calling for Blue Economy cooperation among countries in the Asia- Pacific region, thus, promoting good practices in aquaculture and fisheries and the facilitation of investments in the application of eco-friendly technologies in marine industries. Prior to the 2014 Xiamen Declaration, ministers from the 10 countries namely Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Lao PDR, The Philippines, RO Korea, Singapore, Timor-Leste, and Vietnam issued the 2012 Changwon Declaration. The countries agreed on a consensus regarding the working definition for Blue Economy as a practical ocean-based economic model using green infrastructure and technologies, innovative financing mechanisms and proactive institutional arrangements for meeting the twin goals of protecting our oceans and coasts and enhancing its potential contribution to sustainable development, including improving human well-being, and reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. During the 4th Blue Economy Forum in 2016 held at Haikou, China, the Ocean and Fisheries Working Group (OFWG-APEC) views Blue Economy as an approach to advance sustainable management and conservation of ocean, coastal resources, and ecosystems and to promote sustainable development in order to foster economic growth.

Meanwhile, during the APEC Meeting held in the Philippines in 2015, member economies agreed on a consensus and came up with Iloilo Plan of Action on Food Security and the Blue Economy. The Plan of Action consisted of three specific pillars:

I. Blue Economy towards sustainable food supply chains for food security.

II. Fish loss reduction for increased fish production; and

III. Agribusiness development for food security and inclusive growth.

The consensus gives emphasis on science-based conservation, restoration, enhancement, and management of marine and coastal resources and sustainable aquaculture in the APEC region. The Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA) views Blue Economy for business as a set of environmentally and socially sustainable commercial activities, products, services, and investments dependent on and impacting coastal and marine resources. According to PEMSEA, it may not be limited to economic activities in coastal and marine areas but also sustainable activities for a healthy environment, society, and economy.

Moreover, the Philippines, being the chair of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 2017, offer to lead on areas that the country has a track record namely Marine Protected Areas and Networks; Community Engagement including Local Government Units, Non-Government Organizations, and Indigenous People; Seeking and sharing of traditional knowledge; Cooperative Marine Science programs; Ratification of relevant conventions; and Addressing marine litter.

ASEAN actions were agreed upon three key regional items

A. Fisheries.

B. Aquaculture, and

C. Tourism.

First, ASEAN member nations want to establish a robust and well-managed fisheries sector for local, regional, and international consumption as well as export trade markets. Second, they approved for the need of smart aquaculture that is well-placed and well designed with the help of modern technology in accordance with ASEAN standards. Lastly, the block agreed for the need of real eco-tourism and sustainable tourism infrastructure that give importance to cultural heritage preservation, local communities, and public-private sector participation.

The Fisheries and Aquaculture industry leads other key blue economy industries based on their dependence and impact on coastal and marine areas. Following

a. Fisheries and Aquaculture are:

b. Ports, Shipping, and Marine Transport;

c. Tourism, Resorts, and Coastal Development;

d. Oil and Gas;

e. Coastal Manufacturing;

f. Seabed Mining;

g. Renewable Energy;

h. Marine Biotechnology; and

i. Marine Technology and Environmental Services

The key elements of a Blue Economy includes

a. Equitable Economic Development;

b. Healthy Ecosystem Services;

c. Integrated Approaches; and

d. Science-based Innovations.

Blue Economy is also not limited to areas covered with water but includes a wider scope which includes many other activities and industries linked to the ocean [3].

Issues and Challenges of the Industry

Topping the issues and challenges of the Aquaculture industry is

a. Diseases, followed by

b. International market prices;

c. Access to disease-free broodstock;

d. Feed quality and availability;

e. Banned chemicals/antibiotic use;

f. Environmental management;

g. International trade barriers;

h. Market coordination; and

i. Public relations management.

As for the Philippines, it was in the early 2000 when different pathogens, hit shrimp farms in the Philippines. Shrimps actively accommodate pathogens as persistent infections that act as a specific memory that functions to specifically reduce the severity of the disease [4]. With this host-viral pathogen interaction, shrimps are capable of carrying single or multiple pathogens at low levels without visible signs of diseases. This allows the shrimps to survive for longer periods of time even though they possess latent infection. Table 2 is a compilation of several crustacean diseases prevalent in the region and its current status in the Philippines.

Several shrimp diseases have been detected in the Philippines. These diseases which cause massive mortality to shrimp population are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Based on the Quarterly Aquatic Animal Disease Report (Asia and Pacific Region) 2016 [5], shrimp samples from the Philippines were tested to be positive of White Spot Disease (WSD), Infectious Hypodermal and Haematopoietic Necrosis (IHHN), and Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND). These diseases are classified as OIE-listed diseases by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). Meanwhile, for Non-OIE listed disease, shrimp samples were found to be positive of Hepatopancreatic Microsporidiosis caused by Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei (HPM-EHP). Interestingly, shrimp samples from the Philippines were found to be negative of OIE-listed diseases such as Taura Syndrome (TS), Yellowhead Disease (YHD), Infectious Myonecrosis (IMN), White tail disease (MrNV). Proper mitigation and prevention of diseases must be strategized and put into action by all stakeholders of the industry. Moreover, strengthening Shrimp Biotechnology Research and Development Program is a key to a more progressive Shrimp Aquaculture industry.

Diseases among shrimps caused by several pathogens are the top challenge for Shrimp aquaculture industries worldwide. Shrimp aquaculture has been overwhelmed with a number of trans-boundary aquatic animal diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, with newer pathogens being identified every year. Disease outbreaks have become a significant constraint to the development of Shrimp aquaculture industry, affecting its socioeconomic development, most notably its production worldwide. Therefore, in order to meet the increasing demands of the growing population, new technologies and techniques for disease control must be developed and implemented [6].

Conclusion

The Shrimp Aquaculture Industry in the Southeast Asian Region particularly in the Philippines is continuously growing and developing. The industry gives the country huge income, provides jobs to the people, and secures food supply to the people. It has a very big impact in the economy, society, and environment. ASEAN has a very big potential in the Fisheries and Aquaculture sector given its very strategic location in the world where it is surrounded by different bodies of water. Proper management and governance must be practiced in order to boost the sector where the region is strongest at. The Fisheries and Aquaculture industry is one of the strongest strengths of ASEAN. The Philippines, in particular, is the second largest archipelagic country in the world and most people get their living from the fruits of the ocean, the seas, coastal areas, and aquaculture farms. There may be a lot of challenges in the industry as enumerated in this paper, but the ASEAN community remains to be resilient and strong despite all the issues and challenges bombarding the industry. Cooperation among academic and research institutions, the government, the industry players, and local fishermen/shrimp farmers is a must in establishing a healthy and progressive Fisheries and Aquaculture sector. Each of these sectors must help one another in achieving prosperity in this booming industry. The Fisheries and Aquaculture sector leading the other key industries of the Blue Economy has a very big contribution in achieving food security, poverty alleviation, and sustainable management of marine and aquatic resources in the region. Lastly, translating scientific breakthroughs and innovation into effective policies and actions must be achieved. Working hand in hand among the different stakeholders of the industry is the best plan of action to keep the spirit of Fisheries and Aquaculture igniting [7-15].

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juniperpublishersajop · 4 years

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The Explanation of Magnetic Metal Carbon Mesocomposites Synthesis Peculiarities by Means of Mesoscopics Notions

Abstract

Mechanism of mesoparticles modification reactions are considered with the application of such notions as charges quantization, phase coherence, interference and annihilation. On the base of theoretical Mesoscopics ideas the formation of covalent bonds because of the interference of negative charges quants in modification reactions is discussed. The hypothesis about possibility of annihilation at the interaction of positive and negative charges quants in redox processes is presented. The magnetic metal carbon mesoscopic composites synthesis (for example, initial metal carbon Mesocomposites) is realized by mechanochemical method at the grinding of metal oxides microscopic particles with polyvinyl alcohol macromolecules. Then in the result the Copper or Nickel Carbon mesocomposites which have the following atomic magnetic moments: for Copper – 1,3 μB, for Nickel – 1,8 μB are obtained. The investigations are carried out on the analysis examples of processes of Copper and Nickel Carbon mesoparticles modification by the compounds containing p, d elements. In the middle of its such substances as polyethylene polyamine, ammonium iodide, ammonium polyphosphate (APP), silica (SiO2), aluminum oxide, iron oxide, nickel oxide and copper oxide are used. It’s noted that the red ox processes are accompanied by the metal atomic magnetic moments growth, that is explained by the electron shift on high energetic levels because of the annihilation phenomenon. The hypothesis concerning to the passing of two phenomena (annihilation and interference) at redox processes is proposed.

Keywords: Macro Molecules; Nanoparticles; Suspension; Emulsions; Polymers; Toxicity

Abbreviations: NCPs: Cationic Polymers; DEX: Cationic Dextran; PLL: Poly-L-lysine; WHO: World Health Organization; PEG: Polyethylene Glycol; PDMAEMA: Poly(2-N,N-dimethylaminoethylmethacrylate)

Introduction

The process occurs at the charge’s quantization with the certain phase coherence and then with the chemical bond’s formation because of interference as well as in the red ox processes possible annihilation takes place [1,2]. If chemical reactions are realized without the changes of atoms oxidation states, then the negative charges quants quantization and the interference are carried out. However, the most reactions flow with the changes of elements oxidation states and then according to known schemes of reduction-oxidation processes it’s necessary to take into consideration of positive charge quants.At the interaction of positive charge quants with the negative charge quants the annihilation phenomenon with the electromagnetic radiation or/and the direct electromagnetic field is possible. Also, the interaction of positive charges with the formation of “dark hole” must not excluded (Figure 1). In this case the explosion with diffusion of many most quantity of energy into surroundings is possible. The phenomena of charge quantization, interference and annihilation are considered on the examples of metal carbon mesoparticles interactions with reagents containing p, d elements. At these investigations the basic method of researches is x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Results and Discussion

The production of Metal Carbon mesoscopic composites is carried out with the using of mechanochemical interaction between microscopic particles of metal oxides and macromolecules of polymers at the active medium presence [3]. At the mesoscopic composites production, the sign variable loadings are applied. These loadings are appeared at the grinding with pressing. At the common grinding of Copper oxide particles with Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) particles (or concentrated water solution) the metallic phase clusters falls between macromolecules of polyvinyl alcohol or, in other words, into reservoir (according to mesoscopic notions), in which banks are PVA macromolecules. The metal (example – Copper) within cluster has the positive charge. Therefore, the negative charge quants are directed to positive charged atom. In our case the negative charged quants from polyvinyl alcohol acetate and hydroxyl groups are transferred to copper positive charge quants. As a result, the annihilation with the electromagnetic direct field formation takes place. In this process the acetic acid and water are formed, and also the banks structures are changed: the poly acetylene and carbine fragments are appeared. There are unpaired electrons on joints of these fragments. The process of pair electron division and the shift of electrons on the high atomic levels for metal are explained by the annihilation origin. In this case the metal atomic magnetic moment growth is observed in the dependence on the electrons number which participates in red ox process.

The hypothesis about possibility of annihilation at the interaction of positive and negative charges quants in red ox processes is confirmed by the examples of processes of Copper and Nickel Carbon mesocomposites modification with application such substances as polyethylene polyamine, ammonium iodide, ammonium polyphosphate (APP), silica (SiO2), aluminum oxide, iron oxide, nickel oxide and copper oxide [3-5]. In the case, when polyethylene polyamine and ammonium iodide are applied, the connection reactions take place. At the interactions of polyethylene polyamine with mesoparticles the C=N bond formation is explained by the interference of negative charges quants. When the mesoparticles modification reactions with the using APP, SiO2, metal oxides are carried out, the redox processes are realized. In these cases, the modifiers reduction reactions take place. The structures of metal carbon mesoscopic composites with active carbon shells are defined by means of the complex of methods including x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, transition electron microscopy with high permission, electron microdiffraction and EPR spectroscopy. In correspondent reactions the element reduction for reagents and Nickel or Copper atomic magnetic moments growth in mesoparticles take place. Below in (Table 1) the examples of metal atomic magnetic moments changes for mesoparticles modified by APPh or silica after the mechanochemical modification processes are given. The presence of unpaired electrons on mesoparticles carbon shells in above systems is determined by means of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) (Table 2).

Cu C NC – APPh (or SiO2) and Ni C NC – APPh (or SiO2).

The metal atomic magnetic moment growth proceeds owing to the redox processes with above chemical compounds. In papers [4,5] it’s shown that the reduction reactions of Phosphorus and Silicon from correspondent substances at the interaction on the interphase boundary with mesoparticles are realized.

The relations of mesoparticles to above oxides are changed from 1:1 to 1:0,2 depending on the qualitive spectra obtaining, for example, the relations of 1:1 and 1:0,5 for system “Ni/C NC – Al2O3” leads to full mask of mesoparticles. Therefore, the quantity of aluminum oxide is decreased to the relation 1:0,2. In accordance with Al3s spectra Aluminum is completely reduced during the modification process, and Nickel atomic magnetic moment is increased to 4,8μB (Table 3). In this case the reduction process is related to not only Aluminum oxide but also to Nickel oxide from metal cluster of mesoparticles (Ni C MC). Therefore, the reduction processes are stipulated by the electron transport from carbon shell of mesoparticles in direction to Al+3 and Ni+2 of atoms in correspondent oxides. Exceptional properties of modified Metal Carbon nanostructures with magnetic characteristics lead to the property’s improvement of nanostructured polymeric coatings [6-8]. For example, the introduction of 0,008% Cu C MC into the melamine-formaldehyde resins stimulates the polarization growth in two times (on the AFM data). Similar results can be received at the combination of phase coherency and interference of charges quants during the preparation process of modified polymeric materials. The decreasing of nanostructures activity is possible when the modification is carried out with the ultrasound processing or the violation of phase coherency takes place at the nanostructures quantities changes [9,10].

Conclusion

The present investigation has fundamental character. It’s based on the ideas concerning to the change of Metal Carbon mesoscopic composites reactivity. The investigations are dedicated the mechanochemical red ox processes in which the electron transport from mesoscopic composite cluster to carbon shell takes place. In this case the electron delocalization is found. For the first time the metal carbon mesoscopic composite modification by mechanochemical process with the using of active substances including also bioactive systems is possible. The activity of metal carbon mesoscopic composites is caused by the structure and composition of correspondent composites, which contain the delocalized electrons and double bonds on the surface of carbon shell. Thus, at the mechanic chemical reduction/oxidation synthesis the changes of element oxidation states as well as the increasing of metal atomic moment for cluster can be appeared. At the same time, the modifiers elements and functional groups are discovered in carbon shell of mesoscopic composites modified. The creation of reactive mesoscopic materials with regulated magnetic characteristics which can find the application as modifiers of materials properties, catalysts for different processes, effective inhibitors of corrosion, sorbents, stimulators of plant growth, is very topical. These facts open new era for further investigations and development of metal carbon mesoscopic composites application fields.

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tomy-breyy · 4 years

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Synapse XT Reviews - Real Tinnitus Relief Ingredients or Side Effects Discomfort?

Synapse XT Reviews

This is an updated review of Synapse XT reviews and where to shop for Synapse XT Tinnitus Supplement. provided by FitLivings.

Synapse XT may be a natural dietary supplement that relieves tinnitus and other ear problems. If you're one among those that constantly hear ringing and buzzing in your ears even when there's no noise, you're a victim of tinnitus.

Tinnitus is usually related to age, but is surprisingly far more common in young and middle-aged people. The American Tinnitus Association (ATA) estimates 50 million US adults live with tinnitus, making it one among the most important health problems facing Americans. Surprisingly, most of them don't see it as a ill health and obtain help, which is why it's diagnosed much later when the damage is difficult to reverse.

A study published within the American Journal of drugs shows that tinnitus affects children too, and symptoms worsen with age. for a few reason, it's more common in men, especially men who smoke or drink.

This condition is typically related to ears, but tinnitus is really a brain problem. The neuronal damage to specific parts of the brain triggers a wierd vibration which will be heard within the ears. That humming or gasping makes it difficult to measure. The brain slows down, the strain increases, and therefore the body feels helpless to urge over it.

The only thanks to save from this strange and untreatable disease is to lower the danger, especially within the early stages. There are many options which will help. one among them is that the Synapse XT tinnitus supplement, which improves brain performance, heals internal damage, and lowers the general risk of tinnitus. Read the Synapse XT review below to seek out out if it really helps with tinnitus or is simply a false promise. You can also find more details on the review, benefits, side effects, usage and where to buy Synapse XT at the best price.

MUST SEE: We found an amazingly low price for Synapse XT here

Synapse XT Review - Who Can Use It?

Before discussing what's in it and the way to use Synapse XT for tinnitus, it's important to assess who will need to try. Dietary supplements are best for people that are on the verge of a health breakdown. they'll not be as helpful if an individual has already been diagnosed with an illness as most of those formulas are supported a "prevention" approach.

As mentioned on synapsext com, this tinnitus relief is a protective formula that comes in easy-to-use capsule form as a supplement. Synapse XT strengthens the brain structure of the capsules and improves coordination with the body. this enables the underlying factors that cause tinnitus to travel away naturally.

Anyone who seems like they can not hear clearly and sometimes hears annoying noises that are inaudible to people can use them. Men are more likely to possess these problems than women, in order that they got to take extra care of their health. Synapse XT Tinnitus Supplement aims to figure equally well for everybody.

The only restriction on its use is an regulation. All dietary supplements are intended for adult users only and aren't recommended for minors. If you're trying to find a supplement to supply tinnitus relief for your child, don't use Synapse XT without consulting a doctor. There are other kid-friendly products which may help better. Synapse XT works best just for adult users.

How does Synapse XT work?

According to the official website, Synapse XT may be a diet formula that addresses the basis explanation for tinnitus. The ingredients during this supplement are scientifically proven to be beneficial for the brain. Its benefits aren't limited to only nerve health. They also improve cognition, synaptic connections, focus, memory, and a spotlight span.

According to the manufacturers, this formula has been tested for effectiveness and safety before being released to the general public. additionally, it's manufactured in GMP-approved manufacturing units within the USA. All of those increase the trust and value of the merchandise.

Although individual results may vary, daily use of Synapse XT capsules can stop nerve damage, activate natural healing, and slowly repair that damage. this suggests that tinnitus symptoms can get away after a short time and therefore the body is extremely well shielded from chronic complications, i.e. H. deafness, are often saved. consistent with the corporate, it's no side effects and is therefore safe for long-term use also.

Click here to order Synapse XT at rock bottom price from the official website

Synapse XT's Four Step Action Plan for Tinnitus

This is how Synapse XT Tinnitus Supplement works within the body. supported the ingredients and their functions, four steps are required to finish the range of services.

Stage 1 - detox

The first thing Synapse XT capsules neutralize the body is to chase down the toxins and filter them out. These toxins are one among the most causes of nerve damage and poor synaptic connections. So this supplement cleanses the body and brain of poisons and ensures healthy functioning.

Stage 2 - Cognitive Boost

It adds certain nutrients to the body that have an immediate effect on the cognitive system. It helps a user think more clearly with full concentration and sharp memory. This benefit is extremely desirable for professionals and students.

Stage 3 - Stress Relief

The uninviting buzz within the ears can frustrate an individual and cause them to try to to nothing. due to this, many tinnitus sufferers often suffer from hormonal imbalance, depression, anxiety, and insomnia. However, using Synapse XT has the additional advantage of providing deep relaxation and helping an individual to be calm. there's no got to use sleeping pills or antidepressants for stress relief when using this supplement.

Level 4 - damage repair system

There is no thanks to regenerate nerves, but certain food components can heal the nerve coating and structural damage. Fortunately, the ingredients in Synapse XT capsules protect nerves from further damage and stop death.

In addition to those benefits, it acts on and improves metabolism. Using this supplement for a couple of weeks makes the user feel energetic, active, and focused. it'll take time for this supplement to figure. this point varies for every user. for many people it only takes a couple of weeks, for others it can take months to beat the damage if it's already at its worst.

See what Synapse XT customer reviews need to say about this product. You have to visit the official website here to find out more!

Synapse XT ingredients explained

It might surprise some folks that a dietary supplement like Synapse XT can prevent tinnitus because the healing effects are always related to medication. Although certain drugs can improve tinnitus, chemical-based drugs are never safe to use for weeks or months. additionally, drugs are expensive and need special instructions. On the opposite hand, nutritional supplements are bland, risk-free, and straightforward to use, which is why the trend towards using nutritional supplements has increased dramatically in recent years.

Going through the list of ingredients shows that each one of those are obtained from plant sources. this suggests that these ingredients are freed from side effects and filled with benefits.

Let's take a glance at the Synapse XT ingredient list.

fruit (Juniperus communis L)

Luteolin and rutin are the 2 most famous flavonoids in juniper berries. These two act as natural antioxidants, protecting against radical damage, oxidative stress, and inflammation. If ignored, toxins can build up within the body, affecting the user's metabolism and cognition. A study published within the journal Heliyon shows that juniper berries are effective at reducing inflammation. This inflammation otherwise attracts toxins, slow metabolism, and radical damage.

Hawthornberry (Crataegus)

In a formulation with juniper berries, the hawthorn berries lower inflammation within the body, typically behind nerve damage. There are many studies that confirm its role as an immunity and cognitive booster, which is why they're a part of this ingredient list.

tea extract (Camellia sinensis)

Green tea is loaded with antioxidants and nutrients that trigger weight loss, detoxify the body, and help maintain a healthy weight over the future. due to this ingredient, all Synapse XT users can experience weight loss. A study by Current Developments in Nutrition shows that tea supplements are safe and effective for weight loss and natural detoxification. After all, it also saves against many chronic diseases.

Hibiscus extract (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)

The scientific data on hibiscus extract suggest that this is often associated with weight loss. It lowers vital sign, protects against deafness, improves liver health and saves against various sorts of cancer. the most important benefit is that it's antimicrobial and protects the body from possible microbial invasion.

Garlic (Allium sativum)

It's a part of various traditional medicines like blood circulation and heart condition. it's a reforming role within the body and naturally heals the damage caused by oxidative stress and free radicals. It also improves cognitive functions and protects against permanent deafness.

vitamin C

Vitamin C or vitamin C is necessarily required for the natural repair mechanism, growth and development of the body's cells. It also plays a task in collagen formation, immune reaction, bone density, and iron absorption. Since the daily diet mostly doesn't include vitamin C, the Synapse XT formula adds it to the body to make sure that each one of those functions work well.

B-complex vitamin complex

The B-complex vitamin complex comprises the sum of the many Vit B variants, all of which are related to different effects. It increases energy levels, slows brain aging, and works to create memory. It also repairs damage caused by inflammation within the brain, thus protecting against tinnitus symptoms.

magnesium

It is an important mineral that's required for the upkeep of a healthy brain. It maintains brain and body coordination, stress relief and vital sign control. Some studies show that it can lower insulin resistance and protect against inflammation.

This entire list shows that the ingredients in Synapse XT are natural. There are not any hidden or artificial ingredients that would question the effectiveness or safety of this supplement.

https://www.healthylifeandmagazine.com/synapse-xt-reviews-real-tinnitus

#Synapse XT Tinnitus Supplement #Synapse XT Tinnitus #Synapse XT Review #Synapse XT Reviews #tinnitus #tinnitus symptoms #Synapse XT

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annieboltonworld · 4 years

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Juniper Publishers- Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

Climate Change and the Politics

Authored by Khalid Rehman Hakeem

Mini Review

Climate change is surely considered as one of the debatable topics that has attracted the world attention. The climate changing data that the experts have found are clear as glass, however, with the present of the politics, everything could change not only the climate. The world of politics is extremely complicated. Interests may play a critical role in climate change dilemma. In this report, the conflict of interests will be discussed with a try to discover what the politicians’ perspective is, and in what facts or evidences they based their view on. Additionally, there will be a moment to think about what the denial of climate change can bring to the world of politics, what are the advantages that allow the politicians to spread their influence on the world in many aspects such as economics, politics and environment. Initially, we believe that history is important to fully understand the agendas of climate change movements since the date of birth of this crucial movement. The United States of America (USA) is leading the world, and the administration of USA in the current time and the previous governments have a huge impact on the issues of climate change. The impact of USA could be very positive, as the role that had played in the 1990’s by the environmental community [1].

During the 90’s movement the work of environmental community had been succeed to show the world the next problem that acts as a threat to not only to the American people, but also to the entire humanity. The environmental movement fought and has been fighting with the anti-environmental conservatives, which is a drive that also had their own people (some scientists, as well) to defend their points and claims. In 90’s, the Democrat administration had taken the climate change issue to a new level. A huge leap that took place in regards of climate change movement, but when the Republican revolution arrived to the congress, they acted as a challenge to the climate change movement, with the media power, the climate change movement had been affected, which leaded to an obvious reduction [1]. Climate change had become a biased issue, particularly since 2000 election in USA. In fact, polls have shown that in the years around the election, the percent of Republican survey respondents who believed the media were overplaying the seriousness of the issue increased. At the beginning, Barack Obama administration offered the primary practical chance to pass significant enactment tending to environmental change. In any case, the political climate encompassing his decision, with developing polarization and the ascension of the Tea Party had changed the state of mind. Donald Trump announced that he would withdraw the U.S. from the Paris Agreement, and the EPA is reportedly gearing up to hold an on-air event pitting mainstream climate scientists against climate change doubters. The beginning of the Barack Obama presidency offered the first realistic opportunity to pass meaningful legislation addressing climate change. However, the political atmosphere surrounding his election, with growing polarization and the rise of the Tea Party had changed the mood. Donald Trump had previously expressed support for addressing climate change, but during his campaign, he railed against regulations he said hurt American businesses. In addition, upon taking office, he began a vast effort to undo them. However, nonetheless, climate change remains deeply troublesome. Donald Trump announced that he will withdraw the U.S. from the Paris Agreement, and the EPA is reportedly gearing up to hold an on-air event pitting mainstream climate scientists against climate change doubters.

The conservatives used to deny and underestimate the threat of Climate Change, but the public needs scientific facts to believe them. Making jokes and hurling statements against the environmental scientists, who support climate change, is not enough. The actual question is in what scientific facts the conservatives based their claims upon. There should be evidences to make their aggressive act against climate change reasonable and understandable, while we understand the benefits they gained on such denial earlier in that report. The real conflict between the believers and non-believers is whether the climate change is happening due to influence of human activates or it is a natural phenomenon.

The group of people against the climate change moment believed that CO2 is not really increasing at all. In addition, they claimed that if the CO2 is increasing, there is no relationship that indicates that this increase in CO2 has an impact on global warming. Additionally, they list other claims such as in case of existence of warming that is a natural incidence with no human impact. They believe that the human impact is very small and the emission of greenhouse gases is not a major emission that can lead to a big change. They also claimed that the climate change in future would be a good for humanity unlike what the scientist's claim; especially with the human ability to adapt to any changes as evident in the process of evolution. In fact, they are trying to spread a depressed idea by saying it is too late to do anything to fix that issue. The people who deny also had some scientific claims in the 1990's that the satellite images did not show any warming, which eventually acknowledged that it was an error [2]. Clearly, the movement against the environmental movements takes us directly to the battle between the tobacco companies and scientists and their evidences that relating smoking to cancer. It is almost the same manner, same strategies, and same factors. The climate change denialists used that technique as well, starting by denying any scientists' claims, then took a fight against them by making doubts about their findings ending up with saying that there is a relation but it is not serious. The countermovement said that if the climate change is really happening, it is not a serious issue [3,4]. In conclusion, the battle between the believers and the nonbelievers is still on, there are multiple occasions that gave us an indication about what the leaders want and gave us positivity. On the other hand, other occasions have taken us back away from the goal of any environmental movements. In USA, there are difficulties as well. Recently, the USA demands upon climate change are foggy. The world needs their ideas and demands to be clearer and clearer. The conflict of interests should not be paid by the next generations. Thus, the house of Senate, the House of Representatives, and the oval office should lead the world toward better environment and better life. Manipulating people by the media to spread the idea of denying climate change, is not what our next generations need.

For more articles in Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources please click on: https://juniperpublishers.com/ijesnr/index.php

#Juniper Publishers PubMed Indexed Journals #juniper publishers journals #Ecological psychology #Microbial Ecology #Geodesy #Geo Morphology

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laceyspencer · 4 years

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Analysis of Satisfaction of Small Cucumber Contract Famers in Predominantly Agriculture areas in Sri Lanka-Juniper Publishers

Introduction

With the ever-increasing competition of the agricultural business world, most of the private sector contracts farming providers are also in the phase of increasing their profits. The techniques of contract farming which are used for the profit enhancement is occasionally giving positive outcomes as well as negative outcomes. Efficiencies and productive farmer community vital assets for achieving a higher level of performance in an organization [1]. Satisfied farmer community leads to enhance effort to cultivation performance, so that maintaining of satisfied contract farmer in an organization is crucial factor. To maintain the well-being of an organization management tries to create a highly satisfied farmer community. Therefore, organizational management places a noticeable reliance on their individual farmer performance to gain higher productive cultivation [2,3].

These conditions are leading the contract farmers in the organization to going through a condition of farmer’s job satisfaction which directly affects day today cultivation practices. Together with these facts, there is a new trend in the agricultural academic societies in search of factors that are affecting the level of job satisfaction condition as well as searching the relationships among the job satisfaction conditions and the contract farmer’s performances [4].

The aim of this research study is to identify the factors effect on job satisfaction level of the contract farmers on small cucumber cultivation in predominant agriculture areas such a s Ampara, Thabutthegama & Pollonnaruwa in Sri Lanka. When a contract farmer satisfied about the farming contract they are tending to motivate to do higher effort to the cultivation performance. Ultimately it increases organizational overall performance by increasing continues proper supply to export market [5]. On the other hand, a satisfied farming community & their effort & commitment to cultivation practices are vital for successfulness of organizational goals & objectives. Therefore, the address research problem of this study is that; Satisfaction factors which effect on contract farming [6].

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Problem Statement

Small cucumber export market mainly depend on continues product supply to the market. The continues repetition of contract farming in small cucumber ensure continues small cucumber supply to the market. When there is an insufficient supply, company must import Small cucumber from India and USA and re-export by spending huge cost. Farmers are tending to renew their contract agreement when farmer are satisfied with the existing contract farming activities. Analysis of farmer satisfaction on small cucumber contract farming is vital to increase the profitability of the company [7-9].

During the past few decades, in this small cucumber export private company contract farmer’s repetition of cultivating small cucumber level has decreased significantly. According to the Supply chain department’s sources in 2016 since the organization has implemented lots of strategies changes to the contract farming of the organization, most of the farmers has faced various organizational challenges and those challenges has decreased the satisfaction level of the contract farmers of the organization. According to Bommanahalli and Rangappa, (2016) contract farmers found to be using improved farming practices in maize production. According to Aziri [10] research emphasize that contract farming enhances farmers knowledge, attitude & agronomic practices about small cucumber farming.

As indicated by the Asian Development Bank (2008) a “farmer– endeavor” association for industrialization of agribusiness can be deciphered as the model of agreement cultivating that is generally drilled in numerous nations. It is by and large acknowledged that economical, efficient, and impartially executed contract cultivating can bring advantages to the two ranchers and the endeavors [11- 15].

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Justification of the Problem

It is identified that satisfaction of contract farmers to work to achieve higher amount of cultivation & repetition, as well as dissatisfaction of contract farmers will decrease the cultivation area & increase the non-repetition. Because of dissatisfied contract farmers continuous small cucumber export is breaking that problem of the finally decrease the organizational profit & reputation [16]. According to the Organization 2016 financial report it was then found a significant reduction in the repetition of small cucumber contract farming of the organization by 45% compared to the previous year (2015).

It was also found that there is a significantly higher percentage of small cucumber production deduction compared to the previous years and the previous record prevailing with the records of the organization. All in all, these all factors and figures are providing enough evidences for the occurrence of lower satisfaction level with the contract farmers of the organization [17-20]. As per the Asian Development Bank Report in 2015 underlined that farmer– endeavor organizations ought to be built up to pull in more speculations into horticulture and provincial regions, and to assemble a market-situated rural innovation augmentation framework. The administration has constantly considered contract cultivating as an essential intends to reinforce farmer– endeavor associations [21-23]. As indicated by the Lieping [24] the way that ranchers are unwilling to go into contract cultivating additionally captures the improvement of farmer– endeavor organizations. Numerous examinations additionally detailed that the satisfaction rate of agreement cultivating in the China was low [25].

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Objectives of the Study

The researcher is trying to achieve the below mentioned objectives by conducting this research study [26].

General Objective

a) To study the existing small cucumber contract farming cultivation under leading export pvt. group of company and analysis the farmer satisfaction towards the of contract farming to reduce farmer dropout rate [27].

Specific Objectives

a) To ascertain the existing small cucumber contract farming under leading export company

b) To analysis of farmer satisfaction toward small cucumber contract farming.

c) To give recommendation and suggestion to enhance contact farming of small cucumber [28].

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Research Design and Research Methodology

The key motive of this descriptive research method and the descriptive research design is mainly to investigate the relationship of the contract farmer’s job satisfaction level and the impact of those job satisfaction levels towards the contract farming in small cucumber cultivation [29]. The specific organization selected for the simplification of the overall work was the main small cucumber export private company of Sri Lanka.

This research base on to seek the “Impact of contract farmer’s satisfaction level on the small cucumber cultivation: a study of small cucumber export organization of Sri Lanka. Primary data was collected from pre-tested structured questioner, which specially design and given selected group. Secondary data was collected from previous researches, journals, and government publications etc which are specifically focused on the farmer satisfaction and the contract farming [30-33]. As mentioned in the conceptual model and as elaborated in the hypothesis also, the independent variables were the contract farmer ‘s satisfaction’. As per the dependent variable, the most significant variable of the research which was the ‘small cucumber cultivation related performance’ was used. It does mean whether repetition or not.

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Population, Sample and Sampling

In this study to seek the influence of farmer satisfaction towards the small cucumber cultivation. Mainly focus group was the currently engaging farmers of the organization. Though it is obvious that the compilation of data from the all districts and making necessary data bases for the purpose of the accuracy of the data and the accuracy of the data interpretation when it comes to the generalization of the final results and discussions; the chosen study areas were restricted to the Ampara, Pollonnaruwa & Thambutthegama districts due to the time limitation in collecting the data and the budget constraints of the study. After all the final sample of the study would be a compilation of the given below [34-38].

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Data Collection Techniques

In a quantitative research there are several data collection methods, there two source of data such as Primary data and secondary data. Primary data gathered from actual research events. Secondary data gathered from previous articles, journals, government publications. According to this research secondary data was analyzed by a quantitative manner. Pre-tested questioner did help in achieving this task. It also could be two ways such as personally administrated and interview. Since the limitations pertaining to the research as well as to the researcher (time constraint and the budget constraint) the method which was used for the collection of data was that the use of pre tested questionnaire by interviewed of 20 contract farmers in one district for the purpose of obtaining the data has first been granted the required permission from the upper management of the organization [35].

The sample was selected through simple random sampling and the areas from the Ampara, Pollonnaruwa & Thambutthegama districts were chosen through purposive sampling. The key motive of using the simple random sampling for the sample selection was that to maintain the accuracy of the data which has been generated and to increase the probability for the research to be published in peer reviewed journals or any relevant standard publication materials as a final step of the carrying out of a successful research [36].

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Results and Discussion

Frequency Distribution of Age

According to the Pearson correlation test for age r= -0.0048 (95% confidence interval). When age is increasing job satisfaction will decrease. Have a negative correlation. There were 34.4% contract farmers in 31-40 years’ age range. In the range of 41-50 age categories, there were 33.3% of the respondents, and in 51- 60 years’ category 24.5% of the contract farmers. It was observed that only 7.8% of the respondents were in the age range of above 60 years (Figure 1).

Frequency Distribution of Job status

According to the analyzed data most of the contract’s farmers (76%) only engage with agriculture.24% contract farmers doing agriculture simultaneously with other status such as government, private employment. According to the Pearson correlation value job status and job satisfaction has positive relationship. (r=0.0638, p=0.0000 at 5% significant level) (Figure 2).

Frequency Distribution of Civil Status

94% of contract farmers were married and only 6% of contract farmers were single (Figure 3).

Frequency Distribution of Agricultural Experience

According to the sample 38.9% of farmers have 13-16 years in agricultural experience. In the range of 9-12 experience categories, there were 33.3% of the respondents, and in 5-8 years category 16.7% of the contract farmers. It was observed that 8.9% of the respondents were in the 17-20 range and only 2.2% of contract farmers above 21 years experiences (Figure 4).

Cultivation

More than half (61.1%) of contract farmers have 1-5 years’ work experience in small cucumber cultivation.6-10 years it was 26.7% and 11-15 category there was 11.1% and only 1.1% contract farmers have 16-20 years small cucumber cultivation experiences. According to the correlation value r=0.1299 (at 95% confidence interval) experiences positively correlated with job satisfaction (Figure 5).

Frequency Distribution of Different Cultivation Pattern

There was only 1.1% very small amount of contract farmers cultivate only in small cucumber. 85.6% very high amount of contract farmers cultivate small cucumber with paddy cultivation. Other contract farmers are cultivating small cucumber with paddy and pumpkin (Figure 6).

Variation of Small Cucumber Cultivation Land with Different Seasons

According to the secondary data (organizational annual reports 2014-2017) it clearly shows land areas diminishing with the time [37]. Land amount in Yala season greater than comparing with yala-off and maha season. Lowest amount of small cucumber land can be seen in maha season (Figure 7). Contract farmers’ satisfaction about small cucumber cultivation practices special reference to land preparation. In small cucumber cultivation very, simple land preparation can identify. Contract farmers were highly satisfied with land preparation practices.it was 57%. 33% were satisfied with land preparation (Figure 8).

Contract farmers’ satisfaction about small cucumber cultivation practices special reference to harvesting practices (Figure 9). Daily harvesting is vital in small cucumber cultivation. It is labor extensive practice and somewhat difficult practice comparing to other crops. 37% of contract farmers under the dissatisfied category and 33% under the highly dissatisfied level. There were only 7% contract farmers satisfied about harvesting practices [38,39].

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Contract Farmers’ Satisfaction About Income Receiving

More than half (57%) of contract farmers highly dissatisfied with their income coming from small cucumber cultivation.33% of contract farmers under the dissatisfied category there were no any contract farmers who satisfied with income receiving from small cucumber cultivation (Figure 10).

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Contract Farmers’ Satisfaction About Farm Gate Price

Majority (77%) of contract farmers dissatisfied with their farm gate price.17% of contract farmers are highly dissatisfied with farm gate price [40-42]. There was no any contract farmer who satisfied with farm gate price (Figure 11).

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Contract Farmers’ Satisfaction About Pest Control Practices

In small cucumber cultivation pest control is crucial practice. 50% of contract farmers were dissatisfied about pest control practices.13% were highly dissatisfied with pest control practice. No any contract farmer satisfied with pest control practice (Figure 12).

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Contract Farmers’ Satisfaction About Timely Receiving Money

Majority (57%) of contract farmer dissatisfied about timely money receiving. 23% contract farmers highly dissatisfied about timely money receiving factor (Figure 13). Wilcoxon sign rank test for Training, Yield, Income, Farm gate price, Pest control, Money receiving. According to the Wilcoxon sign rank test p value is less than 0.05 (<0.05=p) in analyzed factors. Training, yield, income, farm gate price, control practices and timely money receiving factors were significantly affect on contract farmer job satisfaction (Table 1).

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Conclusion and Recommendations

Contract farmers are the key persons and main responsible person’s development of cultivation. This become true when the contract farmer satisfied with their cultivation, it will directly have affected to the effective and efficiency of the contract farmers at the field. To achieve organizational goals and objectives it is vital to identify the individual contract farmer satisfaction level toward the cultivation. In this research, basically its main objective was to study the existing Small cucumber contract farming cultivation under pvt group of company and analysis the farmer satisfaction towards the of contract farming to reduce farmer dropout rate job satisfaction level.

Here in this study consider about 90 contract farmers in Ampara, Pollonnaruwa & Thambutthegama areas. There is only limited number of researches are available to identify the satisfaction level of contract farmer with special reference to the Sri Lankan agricultural private organization. The aid of survey method for data gathering and it was utilized Pearson correlation analysis; Wilcoxon sign rank test and descriptive statistics for data analysis. One of the major conclusions that can be drawn from the study result is that difficulties occurred in cultivation practices especially in harvesting and pest controlling. Contract farmers satisfied about their training received and yield from small cucumber cultivation. Poor organizational practices like lower farm gate price, money not receiving timely to contract farmer reduce continues small cucumber contract farming.

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Recommendations

The following recommendations are forwarded to organization to enhance the satisfaction performance of the contract farmers to the highest level.

a) According to the analyzed result concluded that the young age was significant in their satisfaction. Hence, in the farmer selection process give priority to that young farmer with agricultural background.

b) Enhance small cucumber farm gate price.

c) Develop standard system for effective money transferring to contract farmer.

Ex- “On the Spot Money Transferring Method”

a) Develop innovative methods for harvesting and pest controlling.

Enhance the awareness about intergraded pest management instead to chemical application among contract farmers.

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Short Comment on the Current Understanding of Ecological Behavior of Metal Azo Dyes and the Case for Proactive Wastewater Treatment - Juniper Publishers

Abstract

The relative non-toxic metal azo dyes present in wastewaters may be transported to long-distances where the metallic ion and the azo ligand may separate and manifest their own ecotoxicities. The environmental factors which can affect this may be too complex to monitor, and the case of on-site treatment at dye manufacturing or textile facilities is developed in this narrative. A simple mono-azo dye, namely, Eriochrome Black T, is introduced to illustrate molecular structures of metal azo dyes and possible candidate for ad hoc, preliminary testing of future treatment methods.

Keywords: Metal azo dye; Eriochrome black T; Ecotoxicology; Wastewater treatment

Introduction

Ever since the synthesis of the first metallizable azo dye, alizarin yellow, from diazotized 4-nitroaniline and salicylic acid by the German chemist Rudolf Nietzki in 1887, followed by the synthesis of the first metallizable 2-2’-dihydroxy azo dye by E. Bergmann and O. Borgmann in 1893 [1,2] dyes formed as a result of the chelation of a metallic ion by an aromatic o, o-dihydroxy azo compound have generated continuous commercial interest [3]. Famous for their lightfastness (great resistance to fading in sunlight), the so-called “metal-complex dyes” have a great number of applications. Apart from a few restrictions affecting a handful of synthetic fibres, the dyeing industries are satisfied that virtually all substrates can be printed or dyed by them, with a dull shade. In fact, many shades of yellowish-green can be attained by mixing these dyes. The dyeing industries continually search for new shades by mixing different dyes and observing the resulting color. New metal azo dyes are continuously being synthesized and reported, e.g., Myek et al. [4] synthesized a new azo dye and its iron complex with the organic ligand being 3-aminophenol; Van et al. [5] produced a set of novel complexes of bispyrazole azo dyes for chemical fibers, each dye containing one of these metallic ions: Ag+, Fe3+, Co2+, Ni2+ or Cu2+; Hussain et al. [6]; El-Wakiel [7]. Herbst & Hunger [8] illustrated the two theoretical structures of an azo-metallic chelate, Figure 1. The nitrogen atom bonded to the least nucleophilic aromatic moiety is usually the one that donates its lone pair of electrons to the metallic ion.

An Illustrative Model Structure

“Eriochrome Black T” (also known as Mordant Black 11, and hereafter abbreviated to EBT) is a water-soluble mono-azo dye and also a complexing ligand for metallic ions. EBT has many applications, e.g., Dave et al. [9] reported that EBT is used to dye silk, wool and nylon after treatment with Cr (III) salts. In fact, it is highly likely that the chelated complex Cr (III)-EBT will form [10]. Non-complexed EBT can be obtained commercially (as its sodium salt), the IUPAC name of which is 3-hydroxy-4- (1-hydroxy-2-naphthylazo)-7-nitro-1-naphthalene sulfonic acid, and its anion (the dye) is shown in Figure 2. EBT is triprotic, the dissociation of the sulfonic acid group being complete. An aqueous solution is red when pH < 6, blue at pH = 7 to 11, and orange when pH > 12. These colorations can be readily observed in the laboratory on titration with NaOH.

The indicator is formulated as H2In- and the two further dissociations of the phenolic groups are [11]:

H2In- → H+ + HIn2- pK2 = 6.3 [dissociation on the right-hand ring system]

Red Blue

HIn2- → H+ + In3- p K3 = 11.6 [dissociation on the sulfonate ring system]

Blue Orange

The changes in the colour of EBT as a function of pH reflect the large pH range practiced in the dyeing of textiles (Figure 2) [12]. Also, with a relatively low molecular mass of 461.38 and only one naphthalene group attached to each nitrogen atom, EBT is simple in structure compared to dyes with higher molecular masses. Preliminary R&D of wastewater treatment methods would be more difficult for di- or tri- azo dyes (i.e., dyes with two and three –N=N- linkages per molecule) with molecular masses exceeding 1,000, because it would not be easy to determine if or which of the azo linkages are fractured. Therefore, EBT is a good model compound for preliminary studies of chemical reactions leading to decolourization of azo and metal-azo dyes in wastewaters (in addition that much is known about the dye already). Titration exercises in the laboratory using EBT as an indicator resulted in wastewaters requiring treatment so that they would not render other aqueous wastes colorful and nondisposable when they are mixed in wastewater tanks awaiting disposal. Both the acid-base and the tautomeric azo-hydrazone equilibria of EBT in organic solvents were recognised by Hamed et al. [13] using electronic absorption spectroscopy. Çakir et al. [14] proposed the following structure for the Ni(II)-Eriochrome Black T chelated complex, hereafter designated as the “Ni(II)- EBT complex”, (Figure 3). The formation constants of some other metal-EBT chelated complexes are tabulated on Table 1. The problem of tautomerism does not enter into structural determination of the complex because both hydroxyl groups of the EBT molecule are ionized, leaving the negatively charged oxygen atoms to bond with a positively charged metallic ion. Çakir et al. [15] observed the formation of two complexes with stoichiometric ratios of [EBT]: [Ni2+] being 1:1 and 2:1 respectively (with formation constants log10K1 = 8.17 and log10K2 = 11.17). However, the structure of the 2:1 complex was not diagrammed in their paper. Herbst & Hunger [16] presented the molecular structure of (the intensely yellowish green) “Pigment Green 10” of stoichiometry 2 dye ligands to 1 Ni2+ ion [16]. Unlike the 2:1 EBT complex, the two-organic monoazo ligands are different molecules, namely p-chloroaniline and 2,4-dihydroxy-quinoline; each have two hydroxyl groups but only the ionised hydroxyl group in each is involved in chelating Ni2+. Note the formation of two closed rings with the single nickel ion and the donation to it of a total of two lone pairs of electrons by nitrogen atoms. This is illustrated on Figure 4. The synthesis, stereochemistry, speciation and performance of the azo dyestuffs of chromium, iron, cobalt, nickel and copper are discussed in great detail in three separate treatises by Hunger [17], Zollinger [18], and Herbst, Hunger [19].

Ecotoxicology

In a fundamental and generic sense, Holdgate [20] has defined a pollutant as a “wrong” physical or chemical agent that happens to be at the “wrong place, the wrong time, in the wrong amount” [20]. Origins of pollutants must then include both arthropogenic and anthropogenic sources. Often, the later instigates the former, as in the infamous case of mining for copper, lead and zinc in the Japanese prefecture of Toyoma in the 1910s, with the result that the cadmium in the mine runoffs followed the course of the Jinzugawa River into the rice fields. Unfortunately, the river water was used for irrigation and this caused the disease “itai itai”, a debilitating bone disease which has many side-effects and causes severe pain [21,22]. A copper mine is not one until one mines the copper! The adverse effects of metals (from all industrial sectors) and separately, of synthetic dyes on soils, plants, humans and other living organisms are well documented. The literature is profuse. Broadly, the genre falls into four main categories. Here is just a small sample:

1) Damage caused solely by metallic ions. Yadav et al. [23] demonstrated that urease activity and the rates of ammonification and nitrification in soil were depreciated by a series of metallic ions in the following decreasing order: Ag+, Hg2+ > Cu2+ > Cd2+ > Co2+ > Ba2+ > Zn2+ > Ni2+ > Fe2+ > Cr3+ > Mn2+ > Sr2+ > Pb2+ > Al3+ [23]. Overall, the efficient use of nitrogen, an element essential to plant growth, is compromised. Damage caused by non-metallic dyes.

2) Damage caused solely by non-metallic colorants. Hu, Wu [24] isolated the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria Anabaena sp. from the Da-Jia Brook in Taiwan only to discover that the nitrogen content in an azo dye called “RP2B” cannot be “fixed”, but the growth of the bacteria itself is inhibited by the dye [24]. Batool et al. [25] also reported the inhibition of ammonium oxidation in soils by high doses of the azo dye “Reactive Black 5” [25]. The toxic properties of the metabolites of the water-soluble azo dye Methyl Red was reported by Ayed et al. [26].

3) Colorants as occupational hazards. It is now accepted in the medical and epidemiological fields that azo dyes, which, by reduction (cleavage) of their azo groups (–N=N-) by hydrogen, produce many carcinogenic aromatic amines. The four most prominent ones are all “Category 1” carcinogens in the European Union jurisdiction [27]:

A. 4-aminodiphenyl/xenylamine/Biphenyl-4-ylamine (CAS no. 92-67-1)

B. Benzidine (CAS no. 92-87-5)

C. 4-chloro-o-toluidine (CAS no. 95-69-2)

D. 2-naphthylamine (CAS no. 91-59-8).

The 1970s landmark case of benzidine-producing azo dyes causing bladder cancer in Japanese kimono painters who licked their paint brushes to produce a fine tip (thereby ingesting the azo dyes) is well known; but it is also found that some of these toxic dyes are biodegradable [28-30]. Epidemiological studies also found elevated incidences of bladder cancer in artists, painters and printmakers in USA, a little later, in the 1980s [31-33]. A rare piece of literature but useful to chemical engineers performing environmental impact analysis of their manufacturing plants addresses the “mutagenic and carcinogenic potential of a textile azo dye processing plant effluent that impacts a drinking water source” [34].

A friendly and important reminder to the reader is that two updated standards used for the determination of restricted aromatic amines (derived from azo dyes used in textiles) were published by the European Standard Committee in February 2017; the procedure known as “EN 14362-1/3:2017” replaces standards published in 2012 [35,36]. The new documents lay out improved analysis and guidance for the interpretation of test results.

National/Regional panorama reports on environmental pollution. Zhou [36] reported that, as a result of irrigating with dye and textile effluents, organic compounds had polluted agricultural land along the coasts of mainland China and that these contaminants were distributed amongst plant tissues through internal transport [37]. Fang et al. [37] discovered the hormonal-disrupting and genotoxic effects on aquatic organisms induced by effluents from the following industries in the Pearl River Delta:

(a) Textile and dyeing facilities

(b) Electroplating and electronic (manufacturing) factories

(d) Fine chemicals manufacturing

(e) Sewage treatment plants.

Genotoxicities were expressed as “equivalence of x micrograms of benz-α-pyrene”, with 88.2μg/litre as the highest reading, and an overall average of 8.76μg/litre [38]. What about metal azo dyes? The ions Cr3+, Co3+, Ni2+ and Cu2+ are the most used metallic ions as they confer great stability to the complexes formed with their azo dye ligands. However, the chemistry of the chelated complex, the dye itself, is not a mere summation of the independent properties of the metal ion and the dye ligand. The metal azo dye is a unique chemical compound with respect to its biological behavior, and literature discussing the in vivo behavior of metal-azo dyes in biological systems is sparse. Clarke & Anliker [38] analyzed fish toxicity data available at the time for over 3000 dyes, of which only 27 dyes exhibit LC50 of < 1ppm; these 27 dyes include 4 acid dyes, 16 basic dyes and only 7 metal-complex dyes [39]. Wastewaters which have been properly treated, i.e., to become a colorless and transparent liquid would have attained these sub-ppm concentrations, since, as a rule-of-thumb, a concentration of most dyes greater than 1 ppm will be visible to the naked eye. Brown et al. [39] observed that toxicity to algae and inhibitory effects on clarified sludge bacteria are negligible. Pollutants in the study include the free metallic ion, the ligand and the chelated metal complex [40]. Examined a published list of dyes classified as toxic (LD50 ≤ 200mg/kg of human body mass) and found that no metalcomplex dyes were included; in fact most metallic dyes have LD50 ≥ 2000mg/kg [41]. Many researchers are satisfied that metal-azo dyes demonstrate only slight toxicity to humans [39].

All dyes enter natural ecosystems by three routes: during the synthesis and manufacturing of dyes including waste waters, during dyeing of textiles, and during the use of finished products. The fate of the metal-azo moiety in the natural environment needs be addressed if proper risk assessments were to be carried out. This is a most difficult task because the major degradation processes are influenced by many environmental variables.

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The Case for Proactive Wastewater Treatment

All dyes enter natural ecosystems by three routes: during the synthesis and manufacturing of dyes including wastewaters, during dyeing of textiles, and during the use of finished products. The fate of the metal-azo moiety in the natural environment is largely unknown. This is a difficult task because the major degradation processes are influenced by many environmental variables. Conventional “wisdom” is such that dyes are adsorbed onto activated sludge during sewage treatment and anaerobic reduction in the sediment is a relatively rapid process. In the specific case of metal-azo dyes, it remains unknown whether the metallic ions are released or stays within the complex structure with modified ligands, but refractory metal-azo dyes will find their way into natural bodies of water. In surface water, these degradation processes may take place, all affected by pH and temperature of the receiving waters and the structure and bonding of the dye

1) Photolysis (rate determined by sunlight intensity, i.e., “solar flux”)

2) Biodegradation by bacterial enzymes

3) Chemical reactions with other species in aqueous solution

4) Hydrolysis

5) Adsorption onto particulates and surfaces.

In ground (cavern) water, there will be little or no photolysis but the other processes can take place. In soil, the situation is ever more complex. Moisture content of the soil and type of soil is an important factor in determining the fate of organic materials. The pH value and temperature of soil waters dictate the extent of biodegradation, chemical reactions and hydrolysis. When the soil is loamy, organic substances are retained in the soil for longer periods of time than sandy soils. Leached dyes join the cacophony of events taking place in surface and ground waters eventually. Are the dye ligands carriers for long-distance transport for metallic ions, until which time the complexes are degraded, and the metallic ions regurgitated? There is scant data. There is indeed a similar case with metal- EDTA complexes in wastewaters produced by electroless plating during the manufacturing of electronic circuit boards, resulting in the development of methods for the extraction of these metals before sewering. The concern was that de-chelation by various complex forces in the environment such as the ones discussed above may release both the metallic ion and the ligand, both of which may be ecotoxic. Gorzka et al. [41] claimed that Cr3+ ions were precipitated from two di-azo dyes by addition of Ca (OH)2 to the effluent, the precipitate being Ca (CrIIIO2)2 [42]. Although Ca (OH)2 is inexpensive, it is only sparingly soluble. Attempts to precipitate metallic ions from their various chelated complexes by addition of Ca (OH)2 were futile. Mrotzeck et al. [43] claimed in their patents to use a variety of ligands to exchange for the dye ligand, precipitating the metallic ion as a result, but it seems that the problem posed by the colour of the dye ligand in effluents remained unsolved by this group [43]. The reader is referred to the review paper by Cheung & Williams [43] for solving this problem [44]. Cerjan Stefanović et al. [44] resorted to adsorption of metal-azo dyes (Cu2+ and Cr3+) by Croatian clinoptilolite, a natural zeolite [45]. Lee & Guthrie [45] decolorized the three mono-azo metal dyes Irgalan Grey GLN, Irgalan Black RBLN and Irgalan Blue 3GL by bacterial cells of the Shewanella strain J18- 143.

The authors of this article advocate achieving all the following three objectives in treating wastewaters containing metallic azo dyes:

1) Decolorize the wastewater

2) Extract the metallic ions out of solution

3) Mitigate or destroy the potential for carcinogenicity by dismantling the dye moiety.

Using the metal complexes of Eriochrome Black T is a good commencement point for the training of personnel to cope with azo dyes with higher degrees of structural complexity.

Conclusion

While the relatively scare literature concerning the behavior of metal azo-dyes towards biological systems indicates that they are much less toxic than the un-complexed organic dye ligands, the chelated complexes may bypass sewage treatment systems and are transported long distances. The possibility exists that de-chelation may take place and the freed metal and ligand will independently contribute to ecotoxicity. This made a strong case of treatment of wastewater on-site, with three important objectives: decolorize the wastewater, remove the metallic ions, nullify carcinogenicity by dismantling the dye moiety. A simple, low molecular weight mono-azo dye Eriochrome Black T which is also a chelating agent for metallic ions is introduced and recommended to be an experimental dye species for preliminary investigation into technical feasibilities for the treatment of specific dye wastewaters.

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