#Reichskommissariat Ukraine

[carbone14]

Propagande anticommuniste et antisémite (propagande nazie) – Kharkov – Ukraine – Octobre-Novembre 1941

Photographe : Johannes Hähle

[mikakadzutore]

after looking at the Reichskommissariat of Ukraine and the TNO, I decided to mention Kyivan Rus, so I did this: Reichskommissariat of Ruthenia. Language: German and Ruthenian, religion: prohibited, capital: Kyiv. main purpose as a puppet of the Third Reich: to grow and produce food

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 7.11 (after 1920)

1920 – In the East Prussian plebiscite the local populace decides to remain with Weimar Germany. 1921 – A truce in the Irish War of Independence comes into effect. 1921 – The Red Army captures Mongolia from the White Army and establishes the Mongolian People's Republic. 1921 – Former president of the United States William Howard Taft is sworn in as 10th chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, becoming the only person ever to hold both offices. 1922 – The Hollywood Bowl opens. 1924 – Eric Liddell won the gold medal in 400m at the 1924 Paris Olympics, after refusing to run in the heats for 100m, his favoured distance, on a Sunday. 1934 – Engelbert Zaschka of Germany flies his large human-powered aircraft, the Zaschka Human-Power Aircraft, about 20 meters at Berlin Tempelhof Airport without assisted take-off. 1936 – The Triborough Bridge in New York City is opened to traffic. 1940 – World War II: Vichy France regime is formally established. Philippe Pétain becomes Chief of the French State. 1941 – The Northern Rhodesian Labour Party holds its first congress in Nkana. 1943 – Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine (Volhynia) peak. 1943 – World War II: Allied invasion of Sicily: German and Italian troops launch a counter-attack on Allied forces in Sicily. 1947 – The Exodus 1947 heads to Palestine from France. 1950 – Pakistan joins the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank. 1957 – Prince Karim Husseini Aga Khan IV inherits the office of Imamat as the 49th Imam of Shia Imami Ismai'li worldwide, after the death of Sir Sultan Mahommed Shah Aga Khan III. 1960 – France legislates for the independence of Dahomey (later Benin), Upper Volta (later Burkina Faso) and Niger. 1960 – Congo Crisis: The State of Katanga breaks away from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1960 – To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is first published, in the United States. 1962 – First transatlantic satellite television transmission. 1962 – Project Apollo: At a press conference, NASA announces lunar orbit rendezvous as the means to land astronauts on the Moon, and return them to Earth. 1971 – Copper mines in Chile are nationalized. 1972 – The first game of the World Chess Championship 1972 between challenger Bobby Fischer and defending champion Boris Spassky starts. 1973 – Varig Flight 820 crashes near Paris on approach to Orly Airport, killing 123 of the 134 on board. In response, the FAA bans smoking in airplane lavatories. 1977 – Martin Luther King Jr., assassinated in 1968, is awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. 1978 – Los Alfaques disaster: A truck carrying liquid gas crashes and explodes at a coastal campsite in Tarragona, Spain killing 216 tourists. 1979 – America's first space station, Skylab, is destroyed as it re-enters the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean. 1982 – The Italy National Football Team defeats West Germany at Santiago Bernabéu Stadium to capture the 1982 FIFA World Cup. 1983 – A TAME airline Boeing 737–200 crashes near Cuenca, Ecuador, killing all 119 passengers and crew on board. 1990 – Oka Crisis: First Nations land dispute in Quebec begins. 1991 – Nigeria Airways Flight 2120 crashes in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, killing all 261 passengers and crew on board. 1995 – Yugoslav Wars: Srebrenica massacre begins; lasts until 22 July. 2006 – Mumbai train bombings: 209 people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Mumbai, India. 2010 – The Islamist militia group Al-Shabaab carries out multiple suicide bombings in Kampala, Uganda, killing 74 people and injuring 85 others. 2010 – Spain defeats the Netherlands to win the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Johannesburg. 2011 – Ninety-eight containers of explosives self-detonate killing 13 people in Zygi, Cyprus. 2015 – Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán escapes from the maximum security Altiplano prison in Mexico, his second escape. 2021 – Richard Branson becomes the first civilian to be launched into space via his Virgin Galactic spacecraft.

[historydailyfrancischappellblack]

On August 28, 1941, More Than 23,000 Hungarian Jews Were Murdered by the Gestapo in Occupied Ukraine.

Image: Jews being killed in Eastern Europe, October 1941. (Yad Vashem)

On this day in history, more than 23,000 Hungarian Jews were murdered by the Gestapo in occupied Ukraine.

History Daily: 365 Fascinating Happenings Volume 1 & Volume 2 – August 28, 1941

The Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre was a World War II extermination of Jews carried out in the beginning stages of Operation Barbarossa by the German Police Battalion 320 along with Friedrich Jeckeln’s Einsatzgruppen, Hungarian soldiers, and the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police. The killings were conducted in the Soviet City of Kamianets-Podilskyi (now Ukraine), occupied by German troops on July 11, 1941. According to the Nazi German reports, 23,600 Jews were murdered, including 16,000 earlier expelled from Hungary.

The German invasion of the Soviet Union had pushed forward to the point where mass air raids on Moscow and the occupation of some parts of Ukraine were beginning to occur. On August 26, Hitler displayed the joys of conquest by inviting Benito Mussolini to Brest-Litovsk, where the Germans had destroyed the city’s citadel. The grand irony is that Ukrainians initially saw the Germans as liberators from their Soviet oppressors and allies in their struggle for independence. But as early as July, the Germans were oppressing Ukrainians, agitating and organizing for a provisional state government with an eye toward autonomy, and began placing them in concentration camps. The Germans also began carving the nation up, giving parts to Poland (already occupied by Germany) and Romania.

But the true horrors were reserved for Jews in the territory. Thousands of Hungarian Jews had been expelled from that country and migrated to Ukraine. The German authorities tried sending them back, but Hungary would not take them. SS General Friedrich Jeckeln vowed to deal with the inundation of refugees by the “complete liquidation of those Jews by September 1.” He worked even more rapidly than promised.

The city of Kamianets-Podilskyi, now in south-western Ukraine, was part of the Ukrainian SSR invaded by German forces on June 22, 1941, during the opening stages of Operation Barbarossa launched from occupied Poland. Shortly after Hungary (Germany’s ally) declared war on the Soviet Union on June 27, 1941, authorities in Hungary decided to deport foreign Jews, primarily Polish and Russian Jews, but there were also refugees from Western Europe. Jews who could not establish Hungarian citizenship were equally vulnerable to deportation. As a result, many Hungarian Jews who could not document their citizenship were also deported. Many Jewish communities, especially in the Governate of Subcarpathia (then part of Hungary), were expelled in their entirety.

The Hungarians loaded the Jews into freight cars. They took them to Korosmezo (now Yasinia, Ukraine), near the Hungarian-Polish border, where they were transferred across the former Soviet border and given to the Germans. By August 10, 1941, over 14,000 Jews had been sent from Hungary to German-controlled territory. Once in German hands, the Jews, often still in family units, were made to march from Kolomyia to Kamianets-Podilskyi.

On August 27 and 28, a unit of Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing units) in Kamianets-Podilskyi and troops under the Higher SS and Police Leader for the southern region, SS General Friedrich Jeckeln, achieved the mass murder of the entire Jewish community, including both deportees and locals. According to Jeckeln’s report, 23,600 Jews were massacred in this action. He marched over 23,000 Hungarian Jews to bomb craters at Kamenets Podolsk, ordered them to undress, and riddled them with machine-gun fire. Those who did not die from the bullets were subsequently buried alive under the weight of corpses piled atop them. It was one of the first wide-reaching mass murder operations in the Final Solution in Reichskommissariat Ukraine. Within the Soviet Union grounds, it was preceded by a similar killing spree which began on July 9, 1941, and continued until September 19, in the city of Zhytomyr (made Judenfrei) with three mass-murder operations conducted by German and Ukrainian police in which 10,000 Jews died. It was followed up by killing 28,000 Jews shot by the SS and the Ukrainian paramilitary in Vinnytsia on September 22, 1941.

In September 1941, German forces invading the Soviet Union took the city of Kyiv and soon afterward perpetrated one of the most horrific acts of genocide in history. On September 29, they forced much of Kyiv’s Jewish population to go to Babi Yar, also known as Babyn Yar, a ravine located just outside the city. After being ordered to undress, the victims were forced into the canyon, where they were shot by the SS and German police units and their auxiliaries. As the SS later reported to headquarters in Berlin, 33,771 Jews were executed over two days.

The Babi Yar massacre and the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre were the apexes of the “Holocaust by bullets,” a term used by historians to describe the shooting executions perpetrated by the Nazis during World War II, which continued even after they began killing European Jews on a massive scale with poison gas in death camps such as the Auschwitz complex in Poland.

What makes Babi Yar and the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre stand out within the Holocaust as a whole is that metropolitan cities in Europe lost virtually all of their remaining Jewish inhabitants to premeditated murder for the first time in history, and more Jews died in it than in any other German massacre.

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[claudiosuenaga]

Soldados alemães da Wehrmacht capturam em filme o massacre de judeus nos pogroms de Lvov em julho de 1941 enquanto são transportados pelo Einsatzgruppe C e pela Milícia Nacional Ucraniana. Foto: Cortesia do The Wiener Holocaut Library Collections.

Não podemos mais nos dar ao luxo de esquecer a história: os paralelos das ocupações soviéticas e nazistas com a atual invasão russa da Ucrânia por Putin

Durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial (1939-1945), a Ucrânia era uma república sob o controle da União Soviética e tinha uma grande população judaica de aproximadamente 2.700.000 judeus.

Em 22 de junho de 1941, após o lançamento da Operação Barbarossa, nome em código para a invasão da União Soviética pelas Potências do Eixo, a Ucrânia foi invadida pela Alemanha nazista e rapidamente ocupada. Em setembro, o território ocupado foi dividido entre duas novas unidades administrativas alemãs, o Distrito da Galiza do Governo Geral Nazista e o Reichskommissariat Ukraine, que cobriam os territórios do sudeste da Segunda República Polonesa e a República Socialista Soviética da Ucrânia, além das antigas fronteiras, estendendo-se até Donbas em 1943. Erich Koch (1896-1986), Gauleiter (chefe de um gau) alemão do Partido Nazista na Prússia Oriental de 1928 até 1945, tornou-se o Reichskommissar ou líder da região que se tornou formalmente conhecida como Reichskommissariat Ukraine.

Ucranianos cumprimentando os alemães que chegavam na Ucrânia Ocidental no verão de 1941

Distrito da Galiza na primavera de 1943. Comemorações dedicadas à criação da Divisão SS Galiza .

Os ucranianos que optaram por resistir e combater as forças de ocupação alemãs juntaram-se ao Exército Vermelhos. No entanto, nas porções recém-anexadas da Ucrânia ocidental havia pouca ou nenhuma lealdade para com a União Soviética, cujo Exército Vermelho havia tomado a Ucrânia durante a invasão soviética da Polônia em setembro de 1939. De 1931 a 1933, milhões de ucranianos morreram de fome no Holodomor (Fome-Terror ou Grande Fome), que foi sem dúvida uma tentativa deliberada de extermínio orquestrada pelo governo soviético, e de 1937 a 38, mil membros da intelligentsia foram exilados, condenados a gulags ou executados.

Imagens do Holodomor ou Grande Fome na Ucrânia

Após vinte anos de domínio soviético e a fome e o terror de 1932-1933, muitos na Ucrânia tinham esperança de que os nazistas trariam um renascimento econômico ao país. A população judaica ucraniana, no entanto, estava com medo, pois tinha ouvido relatos da perseguição nazista na Alemanha e além. Muitos judeus ucranianos tentaram fugir do exército que avançava, mas a falta de transporte e a velocidade do exército que avançava tornavam a fuga difícil.

Adolf Hitler declarou suas intenções para o país em um discurso em outubro de 1941: "Em vinte anos a Ucrânia já será um lar para vinte milhões de habitantes além dos nativos. Em trezentos anos, o país será um dos mais belos jardins do mundo. Quanto aos nativos, teremos que considerá-los com cuidado. O judeu, aquele destruidor, nós expulsaremos."

A invasão da União Soviética foi vista não apenas como um ataque militar, mas também ideológico. A União Soviética foi retratada na propaganda nazista como o inimigo final, o lar do comunismo e dos judeus. Essa atitude se refletiu nas ações dos nazistas na Ucrânia ocupada.

Desde o início, a propaganda foi instigada contra os judeus. Durante a campanha de bombardeio que se seguiu à invasão da Ucrânia, panfletos extremamente antissemitas foram lançados sobre vilas e cidades ucranianas. Eles pretendiam fazer com que os soldados do Exército soviético se rendessem. Os panfletos afirmavam que não havia motivo para temer os invasores alemães, pois o verdadeiro inimigo eram os judeus comunistas.

Pouco depois de sua ocupação, a população judaica foi forçada a entrar em bairros e guetos judeus e colocada sob supervisão. Esta foi uma medida temporária. Logo após serem forçados a entrar em guetos, as Schutzstaffel (abreviada como SS ou ϟϟ, a organização paramilitar ligada ao Partido Nazista e a Adolf Hitler), a Einsatzgruppen (esquadrão da morte subordinado a SS na Alemanha Nazista responsável por diversas execuções em massa), o Exército Alemão, a polícia ucraniana e colaboradores locais iniciaram o assassinato em massa de judeus ucranianos.

Ao contrário da Polônia, onde os campos eram mais comuns, muitas das vítimas do Holocausto na Ucrânia foram baleadas em suas cidades natais ou próximas a elas pelos Einsatzgruppen, que varreram o país seguindo o exército alemão. A população local geralmente estava ciente do que estava acontecendo e, em muitos casos, ajudou os nazistas a realizar os assassinatos.

Na chegada, os Einsatzgruppen inicialmente atacariam e assassinariam homens judeus com idades entre 17 e 45 anos. Esses homens eram vistos como uma ameaça imediata que precisavam ser eliminados instantaneamente. Enquanto isso, o restante da população judaica foi forçada a entrar em guetos ou áreas específicas. Esses homens, mulheres e crianças seriam então retirados do gueto nos dias e semanas seguintes, marchados ou transportados para os limites da cidade ou vila e fuzilados. As vítimas eram frequentemente informadas de que iriam fazer trabalhos agrícolas e eram forçadas a cavar suas próprias sepulturas.

Na cidade de Zhytomyr, 180.000 judeus foram assassinados dessa maneira em mais de dois anos, do verão de 1941 ao outono de 1943. Em 29 e 30 de setembro de 1941, na capital Kiev, ocorreu o massacre de Babi Yar. Ao longo de dois dias, 33.771 judeus foram massacrados em um tiroteio em massa na ravina de Babi Yar pela polícia ucraniana e pelo Einsatzgruppen.

1942, Kiev, Ucrânia. Fonte: Bundesarchiv. Foto 183-R70660.

O massacre foi um dos maiores assassinatos em massa que os nazistas e seus colaboradores realizaram. Esses tipos de assassinatos em massa ocorreram ao lado de assassinatos espontâneos, enforcamentos e espancamentos públicos e experimentos médicos, onde muitos nazistas locais experimentaram as maneiras mais eficazes de cometer genocídio. No total, os historiadores estimam que cerca de um milhão de judeus foram assassinados pelos nazistas e seus colaboradores durante o Holocausto na Ucrânia.

Houve uma colaboração estrita e significativa entre os ucranianos e os nazistas durante a ocupação da Ucrânia e o Holocausto. A polícia ucraniana colaborou ativamente com os Einsatzgruppen no assassinato do povo judeu. Alguns serviram como guardas de campos ou guetos, outros ajudaram a prender judeus e outros participaram de fuzilamentos. Os civis também colaboraram com os nazistas, seja cometendo seus próprios ataques anti-semitas, seja juntando-se a um dos serviços paramilitares. Exemplos dessa colaboração podem ser vistos nos Pogroms de Lvov, onde 7.000 judeus foram assassinados e muitos outros foram estuprados e espancados por nacionalistas ucranianos. Muitos ucranianos eram antissemitas antes do Holocausto e os nazistas encorajaram e expandiram ativamente esse sentimento, muitas vezes culpando os judeus por atos de guerra, como incêndios criminosos ou tiroteios em massa.

Por outro lado, quando o Exército Vermelho retornou à Ucrânia, um número significativo da população recebeu os soldados russos como libertadores. Mais de 4,5 milhões de ucranianos se juntaram ao Exército Vermelho para lutar contra a Alemanha nazista, e mais de 250.000 serviram em unidades paramilitares soviéticas.

O objetivo da Segunda Guerra Mundial, do ponto de vista de Hitler, era a conquista da Ucrânia. As políticas alemãs, as políticas de que nos lembramos, todas se concentram precisamente na Ucrânia: o Plano da Fome, com sua noção de que dezenas de milhões de pessoas passariam fome no inverno de 1941; Generalplan Ost, com sua ideia de que milhões de pessoas seriam transportadas ou mortas à força nos próximos 5, 10 ou 15 anos, como também a solução final, a ideia de Hitler da eliminação dos judeus; todas essas políticas andavam juntas na teoria e na prática com a ideia de uma invasão da União Soviética, cujo objetivo principal seria a conquista da Ucrânia.

O resultado da ideologia dessa guerra foi que cerca de 3,5 milhões de habitantes da Ucrânia soviética – civis – foram vítimas das políticas de matança alemãs entre 1941 e 1945. Além desses 3,5 milhões, cerca de 3 milhões de ucranianos, habitantes da Ucrânia soviética, morreram como soldados do Exército Vermelho, ou morreram indiretamente como consequência da guerra.

Esses números são apenas para os habitantes da Ucrânia soviética. Claro, os números são maiores quando se inclui toda a União Soviética. Mas vale a pena ser específico aqui sobre a diferença entre a Ucrânia e o resto da União Soviética, por duas razões.

A primeira é que a Ucrânia era o principal objetivo da guerra. A Ucrânia era o centro do colonialismo ideológico de Hitler. Mas, além disso, na prática, toda a Ucrânia soviética foi ocupada durante a maior parte da guerra, e é por isso que, para os ucranianos de hoje, a guerra é algo que acontece lá mesmo, e não em outros lugares.

Hitler nunca planejou conquistar mais de 10% da Rússia soviética e, na prática, os exércitos alemães nunca ocuparam mais de 5% da Rússia soviética, e isso por um período de tempo relativamente curto. Os russos sofreram na Segunda Guerra Mundial de uma maneira impensável para os europeus ocidentais, de uma maneira impensável até mesmo para os alemães. Mas, no entanto, quando pensamos na União Soviética, o lugar da Ucrânia soviética é muito especial, mesmo em comparação com a Rússia soviética.

Em números absolutos, mais habitantes da Ucrânia soviética morrem na Segunda Guerra Mundial do que os habitantes da Rússia soviética. E estes são os cálculos dos historiadores russos. O que significa, em termos relativos, que a Ucrânia estava muito, muito mais em risco do que a Rússia soviética durante a guerra. Em outras palavras, é muito importante pensar na Vernichtungskrieg alemã (guerra de aniquilação ou de extermínio) contra a União Soviética, mas no centro disso está a Ucrânia soviética.

Então, se quisermos falar sobre a responsabilidade alemã pela Rússia, muito bem, mas essa discussão deve começar com a Ucrânia. A Ucrânia está a caminho da Rússia, e a maior intenção maliciosa e a maior prática destrutiva da guerra alemã foi justamente na Ucrânia.

O Holocausto está integral e organicamente ligado à  Vernichtungskrieg, à guerra de 1941, e está orgânica e integralmente ligado à tentativa de conquistar a Ucrânia, a causa da guerra. Se Hitler não tivesse a ideia colonial de travar uma guerra na Europa Oriental para controlar a Ucrânia, se não houvesse esse plano, não poderia ter havido um Holocausto, já que foi esse plano que trouxe o poder alemão para a Europa Oriental, onde os judeus viviam.

Em segundo lugar, a guerra real na Ucrânia traz a Wehrmacht (as forças armadas da Alemanha Nazista de 1935 até 1945), traz a SS e a polícia alemã para os lugares onde os judeus podiam ser mortos.

Tornou-se claro para os alemães em 1941 que algo como um Holocausto poderia ser perpetrado por causa de massacres em lugares como Kamianets-Podilsky, ou, mais notoriamente, Babyn Yar, nos limites de Kiev. Foi lá que pela primeira vez – não só na história da guerra, mas pela primeira vez na história da humanidade – milhares de pessoas foram mortas por balas em um massacre contínuo em grande escala. Foram eventos como este, precisamente no território da Ucrânia, que deixaram claro que algo como um Holocausto poderia ser feito.

O que isso significa? Significa que a ocupação alemã da Ucrânia estava para os nazistas como a invasão russa atual da Ucrânia está para Putin.

Nazi Crimes in Ukraine: 1941-1944, by F.A. Vyotsky, A.F.; Kopylenko, A.L.; Lopushanksy. Naukova Dumka Publishers; 1st edition (January 1, 1987).

A questão neste momento tão terrível em que a história parece estar se repetindo é: por que todos esses pontos básicos não estão sendo lembrados, nem mesmo pelos historiadores? Por que não estão dizendo que a Ucrânia era o centro da ideologia de Hitler, do planejamento de guerra alemão, que os ucranianos eram os escravos pretendidos da Alemanha? Por que não estão lembrado que cerca de 6,5 milhões de habitantes da Ucrânia soviética morreram como resultado da ocupação alemã? As razões são muitas, e entre elas está a tendência a ignorar um povo que não era visto como povo. Ao que parece, só agora com a invasão, os ataques massivos e o massacre que o Exército Russo está promovendo na Ucrânia é que muitos estão se dando de que esse povo existe...

Toda as caracterizações sobre a Ucrânia como um estado falido, ou dos ucranianos não como uma nação real, ou dos ucranianos divididos cultural e etnicamente, é uma herança de uma tentativa de colonizar um povo que não é considerado um povo... Vide que a Ucrânia é sempre submetida a outros padrões, notadamente russos, como se não houvesse uma nação ucraniana, um estado ucraniano...

A política externa russa ainda dita os próprios conceitos que temos sobre esse povo. E a política externa russa divide a história da União Soviética em duas partes: a parte boa, que é a parte russa, e a parte ruim, que é a parte ucraniana. Podemos resumir isso para você mais rápido do que o memorando oficial da política externa russa faz: libertação – russo; colaboração – ucraniano.

O nacionalismo ucraniano foi uma das razões dadas por Stalin para a Grande Fome de 1932 e 1933. O nacionalismo ucraniano foi uma das razões dadas para o Terror em 1937 e 1938. O nacionalismo ucraniano foi uma das razões dadas por Stalin para as deportações em massa de habitantes da Ucrânia soviética após a Segunda Guerra Mundial. E o nacionalismo ucraniano foi a razão dada para a invasão russa da Ucrânia em 2014 e é a mesma razão que está sendo dada por Putin agora em 2022.

O perigo aqui é nossas mentes serem levadas a uma espécie de Pacto Molotov-Ribbentrop (também conhecido como Pacto Nazi–Soviético, Pacto de Não Agressão Germano-Soviético ou Pacto de Não Agressão Germano Nazi-Soviético, um pacto de neutralidade entre a Alemanha Nazista e a União Soviética assinado em Moscou em 23 de agosto de 1939), no qual os alemães concordam com os russos que os males que vieram de Berlim e de Moscou para a Ucrânia serão atribuídos aos ucranianos.

Toda a história recente da Ucrânia é precisamente a história da colonização e da escravidão. Os ucranianos estavam no centro de um projeto de colonização e escravização nazista. A ideia era criar um regime colonial escravista e exterminador na Europa Oriental, onde o centro seria a Ucrânia. Será que os planos de Putin não seriam os mesmos? Por termos esquecido a história, deixaremos agora que ela se repita, mas desta vez com a vitória final dos russos?

Errar a história da Ucrânia em 2013 e 2014 teve consequências europeias. Errar a história da Ucrânia agora, quando Putin não tem oponentes à altura e conta com o apoio da China, terá consequências mundiais. E para todos nós.

[tinyshe]

The roots of fascism in Ukraine: From N_z_ collaboration to Maidan

by Sam Shipman

Jan 4, 2018

In recent years Ukraine has popped up in the mainstream media due to explosive political developments. Starting with the “Orange Revolution” in November of 2004, to the Euromaidan coup d’etat that was carried out by multiple fascists organizations and was propped up and propagated by the US government.

With the recent surge in Ukrainian ultra-nationalism and the rise of fascist groups both within the Ukrainian political sphere as well as the upper echelons of military hierarchy, it is crucial to understand its historical origins, beginning with Ukrainian collaboration with N_z_ Germany during World War II. On June 22, 1941 the N_z_ invasion of the Soviet Union began under the name Operation Barbarossa. The original purpose of the operation was to conquer the western Soviet Union to implement “Lebensraum,” or “living space,” for ethnic Germans to relocate and repopulate former Soviet territories. The Slavic people already living there were to be used as slave labor to aid the Axis powers and to seize the agricultural production available in this portion of the Soviet Union (Norman, 1973). The extermination and genocide of Slavic peoples, due to their designation as “sub-human,” was also to be carried out to facilitate the relocation and repopulation efforts of ethnic Germans in Slavic lands.

Operation Barbarossa was initially highly successful, with the brunt of the offensive being taken by the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. At the beginning of the war the population of Ukraine was at 23.2 million however, in what could accurately be described as Ukraine’s own holocaust, by the end of the war 3,000,000 Ukrainians and other non-Jews had been executed, with an additional 2,300,000 Ukrainians being deported to allow for the “Germanization” of Ukrainian territory (Gregorovich, 1995).

Following the initial opening of Operation Barbarossa, on July 17, 1941 H_tl_r issued an official decree defining how N_z_-occupied Ukraine would be governed by a N_z_-appointed civilian regime known as the Reichskommissariat Ukraine (RKU) and overseen by N--- Party regional East Prussian branch leader Erich Koch (Eher, 1946). The RKU was tasked with the pacification of Ukraine, the extermination of political dissidents and those who would interfere with the process of N--- post-war expansion, as well as the general exploitation of the Ukrainian resources and people to further the goals of the Th--d Reich.

In addition to the establishment of the RKU, Heinrich Himmler personally saw to the formation of the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police (UAP) (Shapiro et. al., 2005). That UAP itself was split into two different categories. The first, known as the “Schutzmannschaft” or “protection team”, was tasked with carrying out anti-Jewish atrocities along with combating pro-Soviet partisan resistance throughout most of Ukraine. The second group was simply referred to as the “Ukrainian Police,” which operated under the guidance of the infamous Nazi Schutzstaffel (SS) and was given special autonomy from the RKU (Bewersdorf, 2008). The UAP were the major perpetrators in the portion of the Holocaust that occurred in Ukraine. In the region of Volhynia alone, the Ukrainian police units exterminated 150,000 Jews in addition to the murder and deportation of countless other non-Jewish Ukrainian nationals (Statiev, 2010).

Lastly and perhaps most infamous in the history of the N___ occupation of Ukraine was the figure of Stepan Andriyovych Bandera. Bandera was a Ukrainian ultra-nationalist born on January 1, 1909 in Austria-Hungary. Bandera served as head of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) in Galicia. In the early months of World War Two OUN leader Andriy Melnyk alongside Stepan Bandera were recruited by a N____ intelligence organization to commit espionage and sabotage against the Soviet Union. They agreed to this work under the pretext that Ukraine would be given autonomy following the N--- invasion of the Soviet Union. The OUN was even supportive of the extermination and forced relocation of Jews, Tatars, Roma people, and Poles in Ukraine (Mueller, 2007). With the arrival of N--- soldiers in Ukraine following Operation Barbarossa, on June 30th, 1941 Bandera and the OUN issued the Act of Proclamation of Ukrainian Statehood which declared Ukraine an independent state from the Soviet Union. This proclamation stated an independent Ukraine would “work closely with the National-Socialist Greater Germany, under the leadership of its leader Ado--- H----r which is forming a new order in Europe and the world and is helping the Ukrainian People to free itself from Moscovite occupation” (Snyder, 2003). Despite all of Bandera’s crimes (not only against the Ukrainian and Jewish people, but humanity as a whole) and open collaboration with Nazi Germany, Bandera is still seen as a hero to the Ukrainian government and their far-right followers. On January 22, 2010 Ukrainian president Viktor Yushchenko awarded the deceased Bandera the title of Hero of Ukraine (Economist, 2010) which is the highest title any Ukrainian citizen can receive.

It is within this context of Ukraine and Stepan Bandera’s history and the relationship of the current ruling junta to the RKU during the dark years of N-z- occupation, that today’s Ukraine must be understood. In February of 2014 a Ukrainian minority began protesting in the Ukrainian capital of Kyiv (this movement would become known as Euromaidan). There were three primary intentions behind these demonstrations: 1) to remove the democratically-elected President Viktor Yanukovych from power (ignoring the constitutional process in effect); 2) to help bring attention to the possibility of Ukraine joining the European Union; and 3) to alter the constitution to restore it to as it was between 2004 and 2010. The first demonstrations promoting the message of Euromaidan began in 2012, but did not gain much traction until 2014 when right-wing organizations Svoboda (“Freedom”) and Right Sector effectively seized control as the militant tactical leadership of the demonstrations in Kiev.

Founded in 1991, Svoboda cast itself as a Social-National Party of Ukraine while spewing a hard line on Ukrainian nationalism and anti-communism, a stance which led many Russian, Jewish, and other international organizations to denounce Svoboda as a fascist organization (Stern, 2013). Directly following the success of Euromaidan, multiple Svoboda members would gain positions within the Ukrainian government (Stern, 2012). The Deputy Prime Minister, Agrarian Policy and Food Minister, Environment and Natural Resources Minister, governor of Poltava, Ternopil and Rivine ‘Oblast all were members of Svoboda while holding office in the Ukrainian government.

Svoboda took a strong leadership position in the Euromaidan coup that grew from a non-violent protest to a militant takeover of the country when far-right organizers began attacking, and eventually killing 17 while injuring nearly 300 law enforcement and anti-EU demonstrators. Since 2004, Svoboda has been led by a man named Oleh Tyahnybok. His career in Ukrainian politics has been one built upon a platform of hate (against Jews, Russians, Communists, all non-Orthodox Christians, and any ethnic minorities in the country) and ultranationalism. As of 2017, Oleh has submitted 36 motions to the Ukrainian parliament, all of them promoting hate. These include opposition to the adoption of regional languages, support for further recognition of N*z* collaborator groups during World War II, the regulation of political involvement for communist officials, and demands to make communism in Ukraine illegal (Shekhovtsov, 2011). His personal conduct, while unsurprising to those familiar with his politics, underscore his true loyalties as well; in 2004, while at the grave of a N*z* sympathizer of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, Oleh made televised remarks such as “[You are the ones] that the Moscow-Jewish mafia ruling Ukraine fears most” (Kuzio, 2004) and “They were not afraid and we should not be afraid. They took their automatic guns on their necks and went into the woods, and fought against the Muscovites, Germans, Jews and other scum who wanted to take away our Ukrainian state” (Shekhovtsov, 2011). Despite Oleh’s revolting history, he has still been welcomed with open arms by multiple American politicians, most notably and frequently U.S. Senator John McCain (Taylor, 2013).

The two foremost paramilitary organizations with close relationships to Svoboda and Euromaidan (and personally connected to those with N)(* sympathies during World War Two) are known as Right Sector and Azov Battalion. Right Sector is a far-right political party and paramilitary organization which arose after the merging of six Ukrainian nationalist, religious fanatic, anti-communist, and Eurosceptic organizations (Anderson et. al., 2015). United as Right Sector, the organization led the most violent street brawling against Ukrainian police during Euromaidan, recognizable due to their use of the symbols of Bandera and the RKU. Such Right Sector (and Svoboda) demonstrations visibly display numerous flags and photos featuring Stepan Bandera’s face in addition to the red and black flags of the fascist Ukrainian Insurgent Army (which now also serves as the current flag of Right Sector). The Ukrainian Insurgent Army was formed in November of 2013 by Dmytro Yarosh and on December 27, 2015 a majority of the group left entirely claiming that Right Sector had done its job ‘as a revolutionary structure’ and was no longer needed. Yarosh said that he didn’t support continued revolutionary rhetoric and didn’t want to push anything that might weaken or question the current Ukrainian government’s hold on power (Melkozerova, 2016). After the majority of Right Sector declared their mission complete, they would go on to join the fascist-sympathetic and largest volunteer battalion of the Ukrainian Armed Forces: the Azov Battalion.

The Donbass War arose in 2014 when the residents of the Donetsk and Lugansk Oblasts took up arms against the Ukrainian junta and declared themselves independent republics (known as the Donetsk People’s Republic and Lugansk People’s Republic, respectively). As of 2017 this war is in a period of stalemate due to a tenuous ceasefire. This ceasefire, however, offers very little to the people of Donetsk and Lugansk. For instance, it has been documented that the ceasefire was violated 17 times on Sept. 7, 2017 alone. The Ukrainian government and its NATO allies continue to push the false narrative that the rebel combatants are entirely Russian regular infantry. This baseless position was actually refuted by the words of Ukrainian Chief of Staff Viktor Muzhenko, who acknowledged that “Right now the Ukrainian army is not engaged in combat operations against Russian regular units,” ironically proving the claims of both the Donetsk and Lugansk rebels and the Russian government.

With that all being said, Azov Battalion has taken part in numerous major battles and offensives in the Donbass War, through which it achieved particular notoriety. Azov Battalion was the only military unit that was able to defend itself against rebel advances on the Western front of the conflict, even with significant U.S. military aid in the hands of the entire Ukrainian junta. As a result of these successes, Azov Battalion acquired the reputation on both sides of the conflict as being the most effective fighting force in the war.

Azov has also gained itself a reputation far beyond its military exploits as a unit however. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCR, 2016) declared Azov Battalion guilty of war crimes on multiple accounts. In 2014 Azov was documented engaging in mass looting from civilian homes in the down of Shyrokyne, as well as targeting civilian areas with artillery and small arms fire. The OHCR report also detailed the rape and torture of a mentally disabled man, claiming “A man with a mental disability was subject to cruel treatment, rape and other forms of sexual violence by 8 to 10 members of the ‘Azov’ and ‘Donbas’ battalions in August-September 2014. The victim’s health subsequently deteriorated and he was hospitalized in a psychiatric hospital.” In a later report from 2015, it was reported that a captured suspected supporter from the Donetsk People’s Republic was tortured via electrocution and waterboarding until he confessed to allegedly spying for the rebel governments.

Azov Battalion also has strong ties to fascism and uses neo-N#*-= symbolism. Azov Battalion members were filmed displaying neo-N*%# and *double-S symbols and iconography, In one widely-circulated instance, the German ZDF television channel filmed an Azov fighter who had a swas -tika and double*S symbol engraved into his helmet (NBC News, 2015). Azov Battalion has had so much coverage associated with their unapologetic following of N**i ideology that in 2015 both the United States military and Canadian forces stated that Azov would no longer be directly trained by the two respective nations (Conyers, 2015). Tellingly however, these conditions were quickly removed when Azov became a regular military unit in the Ukrainian armed forces, as opposed to the militia status they had been operating under beforehand (Sokol, 2016).

With the overthrow of the Soviet Union, Ukraine became entirely independent in 1991, yet the complex and dark history of Ukraine is one that can be traced back decades. The shadow of Ukraine’s past is one that looms over the entire region to this day.

The evidence against the Ukrainian government’s internal fascist sympathies and support for fascism in the ranks of the Ukrainian Armed Forces is undeniable. The only conclusion is for the workers of all countries to stand in solidarity against the crimes of the Ukrainian government, and say that we won’t allow fascists to occupy Ukraine as they did in WWII.

[sry ppl trying to save article for ref and bypass TheCensorMachine in case this article goes MIA]

[mitzvatemet]

Holocaust in Nikolaev

https://bit.ly/3blAPnD - online burials catalog.

According to the 1939 census, 25.2 thousand Jews lived in the city. They made up 15.2% of citizens. Parts of them were managed to be evacuated together with shipbuilding plants as engineering and technical workers.

The report of the city’s field commandant dated October 5, 1941 has been preserved. According to the document, at the time of the Nazis' entry into Nikolaev, there were about 6 thousand Jews in it. Invaders captured the city on August 15, 1941. The south of Ukraine was divided into German and Romanian zones of occupation. Ghettos were created only in territories controlled by Romanians. Nikolaev became the general district within the territory named by the occupiers of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine.

In the early days, the Nazis hanged 8 Jews, accusing them of robbery. Further events developed according to the worked out scenario. An Einsatzgruppe arrived in the city to prepare for the destruction aktion. The Nazis created a Jewish council, which was supposed to deal with the registration of the population. Already at the end of August, 227 Jews were killed a kilometer from the city, whom the occupiers accused of evading registration. The bodies were buried in a ravine at a depth of 2 meters. The firing squad consisted of two groups of 12-15 people. Victims were transported by truck and unloaded from the number of shooters from 24 to 30 people. The execution lasted from 7 a.m. to mid-day.

On September 14, 1941, the occupation authorities issued an order to all Jews from September 16 to come to the area of ​​the Jewish cemetery for resettlement. They should have documents, values ​​and things with them. After registration, doctors and members of mixed families were released. The rest were placed in a cemetery surrounded by a high fence. Once a day, the prisoners were taken out under escort to collect water in a well along Vtoraya Ingulskaya Street.

The executions began on September 21, 1941. First, men were taken out of the cemetery, under the pretext of participating in agricultural work. Executions took place 12 km from the city in a ravine between the villages of Kalinovka, Gorokhovka and Voskresenskoye. For three days, 22 cars brought to the place of execution more than 5 thousand people.

At the end of September 1941, the Nazis re-registered the residents. The city counted 89 thousand people. The column “Jews” in the document has a dash.

However, this did not prevent the Nazis from September-October 1941 to conduct another aktion to identify those Jews who did not appear for registration. They were shot in the vicinity of the village of Temnovod.

In 1942, another 40 people were executed, who were released during registration in September 1941.

Before the retreat in early 1944, the invaders tried to hide the traces of crime.

https://bit.ly/3blAPnD - online burials catalog.

#mitzvatemet #JewishGenealogy

[artofreddit]

"Hitler's warriors are friends of the people" - Propaganda poster of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine (1942) posted by Reddit User: vaish7848 Visit artofreddit.com for more art #propagandaposters

[thesovietbroadcast]

1980 ☭ – Lahoysk memorial to the victims of the Chatyń massacre, Belarus.

On 22 March 1943, Almost the entire village of Chatyń was murdered by Schutzmannschaft Battalion 118, a Ukrainian Auxiliary Police battalion organized by the Reichskommissariat Ukraine. Of the 156 inhabitants of the village, 149 were rounded up, drove into a barn, and burned alive. Those who attempted to escape the barn were mowed down by machine guns, and only 2 of the 149 managed to survive their wounds. In total, 8 villagers survived (two were not at the village at the time, and 4 survived by hiding) and of the 147 dead, 75 were below the age of 16. Battalion 118 of the Ukrainian Schutzmannschaft was largely composed of former members of a military wing of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, the Ukrainian National Militia. Before being organized by the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, the Ukrainian National Militia aided the Einsatzgruppen in the mass murder of Ukrainian, Belarussian, and Polish Jews, though they often carried out pogroms and the rounding up of Jews independently of the SS. As a mobile police unit, they served with the primary purpose of anti-Jewish and anti-partisan operations throughout Ukraine. In contemporary Ukraine, the OUN is celebrated, with Stepan Bandera and Roman Shukhevych being considered national heroes.

[hoshvilim]

היכונו למסע צליינות וחיפוש אחר מקורות המשפחה שלי ברוסיה הלבנה – הן מצד אבא והן מצד אמא. הצטרפו למסע אשתי היקרה ואחי הבוגר שהגיע במיוחד מקליפורניה.

מינסק היא עיר הבירה של בלארוס (רוסיה לבנה) והעיר הגדולה ביותר בה. בני משפחתי לא היו תושבי מינסק, אבל מינסק היא נמל התעופה הראשי לכניסה ל״רוסיה הלבנה״. תולדות העיר משקפות ומשפיעות על בני משפחתי שהתגוררו בעיירה סמוכה (בוגושביץ) ומאוחר יותר בעיר סמוכה (בוריסוב). הפוסט הזה יסקור תולדות בלארוס, תולדות מינסק, הפלישה של גרמניה הנאצית, תולדות הקהילה היהודית במינסק, והשואה במינסק. אתרי הנצחת קרבנות השואה סביב מינסק:- אנדרטת הבור (יאמא), מאלי טרוסטינץ (Maly Trostenets Memoria) יוצגו בפוסט נפרד.

My brother, Prof. Benjamin Jerry Cohen, and I, have come to Belarus to reunite with the roots of our family. Our journey took us through Minsk (Yama and Maly Trostinets), Khatyn, Borisov, Shklov, Mogilev, Bogushevichi, and Smilavichy. This was our itinerary. Each city was reported in a separate post in this blog. One city has a sad “story” and another has a happy “story”. Borisov was the home of all our aunts and uncles on the “Cohen” side. Not one of them survived the Holocaust. On the other hand, Shklov was the home of our family on the “Grossman” side who were all smart enough to leave Russia before WWI. All of them survived in Canada. Bogushevichi was the home of our father for 23 years until he escaped Soviet Russia and immigrated to the USA. All his siblings were murdered in the Holocaust. My brother and I  both want to walk on the ground where our father grew up.

מה אומרים מורי דרך על מינסק – What do tour guides have to say about Minsk

שדה התעופה הלאומי של מינסק (Minsk National Airport) מודרני ונקי. אבל בביקורת הגבולות בודקים באטיות כל דף של דרכונך בזכותית מגדלת ומצלמים כל עמוד (אולי בשביל קג״ב?). הנהיגה במינסק ובכל בלארוס פראית. כאן מותר לעשות סיבוב פרסה באמצע כביש לאומי של ששה מסלולים. אין בעיה לדבר אנגלית:- פשוט אף אחד לא מבין. לעומת זאת העיר נקיה להפליא והתושבים ידידותיים.

There are more than 20,000 rivers and creeks and about 11,000 lakes in Belarus but is a landlocked country. One third of the territory of Belarus is covered by forests. It borders five other states. Belarus is sometimes called the ‘Lungs of Europe’ for its countless forests, rivers and lakes. Belarus is not a member of the Schengen Area and is not a member of the European Union (EU). Belarus was the smallest of the three Slavic republics included in the Soviet Union (the larger two being Russia and Ukraine).

Some places in Belarus would accept Dollars or Euros. Normal payment currency in Belarus is the local BYR, but bring in USD or EUR. Bank cards are widely used in Belarus. You can use them in shops, hotels, restaurants and self-service kiosks. The most widespread international payment systems in Belarus are Visa and MasterCard.

New Belarusian rubles can puzzle tourists who come with euros in the pocket. The reason is simple – the new banknotes are almost similar in size, design, and even colors to the currency of the EU. So be careful and don’t confuse the two! All major streets are wide and are illuminated when it gets darker. So, even at night, you can feel safe in the capital of Belarus. Minsk is definitely worth a visit.

Christianity is the main religion in Belarus, with Eastern Orthodoxy being the largest denomination. The legacy of the state atheism of the Soviet era is evident in the fact that a large part of the Belarusians are not religious. According to the 2009 national census, there were 12,926 self-identifying Jews in Belarus. The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 20,000.

כלל גדול בהנצחה בבלארוס: אחד מכל ארבעה תושבי רוסיה הלבנה נרצח על ידי הנאצים ימ״ש. כאן נרצחו במחלחמת העולם השניה רק ״אזרחי רוסיה הלבנה״ ולמרות שרובם היו יהודים לא מציינים את דתם.

בתי כנסת בבלארוס –  Synagogues in Belarus

בסיור שלנו נבקר בבתי כנסת בערים בוריסוב ומנסק. ביתר הערי בנן נשהה כבר אין בתי כנסת.

Synagogues in Belarus

בית כנסת חב״ד Synagogue Chabad  (פעיל-Minsk Jewish Community Synagogue      –     (Active

Synagogue Chabad Lubavitch of Minsk –  ul. Kropotkina 22 – ул. Кропоткина, 22

בנין בית הכנסת הוקם בשנת 1910. במשך שנים רבות היה סגור. רק בשנות ה-90 של המאה ה-20 הוחזר המבנה לקהילה היהודית באופן רשמי.

Phone: 375-29-330-6675           Local Time: 11:16 AM (GMT +3)       www.JewishMinsk.com   Rabbi Shneur Deitch, Chief Rabbi          Mrs. Basya Deitch, Director          Meal Hashgacha: Rav Sirota

    מחוץ לבית כנסת חב״ד- Outside Minsk Jewish Community Synagogue

   מחוץ לבית כנסת חב״ד – Inside Minsk Jewish Community Synagogue

Synagogue furniture

מפה לבית חב״ד – Map to Chabad House

בית כנסת בית ישראל – Synagogue Beis Yisrael (פעיל-Actibe)

 Synagogue Beit Yisrael –  Daumana  St. 13 B Minsk, 220002  – Phone: +375-172-345612

   Paintings of once Belarus Synagogues in Beis Yisrael Synagogue – צילומי בתי כנסת בבלארוס המקשטים בית כנסת בייס ישראל

(All photos with permission of Beis Yisrael Synagogue)

בית הכנסת הריפורמי – Association of Progressive Jewish Congregations

Association of Progressive Jewish Congregations – Internatzionalnaya St. 16

בית כנסת קורל – Choral Synagogue   (לא פועל-No longer a synagogue)

Former Minsk Choral synagogue 5 Volodarskaya Street now Gorky National Drama Theatre

After the revolution, the Choral Synagogue fell to perform exclusively cultural roles – it was a Jewish theater, a House of Culture, a cinema with 1,2 thousand seats and, finally, in 1947, the Russian Theater created in Bobruisk moved there. The building of the former Choral Synagogue, which was rebuilt after the war, where the National Academic Drama Theater named after Maxim Gorky is now located, now looks different. Fragments of the old masonry can be seen only from the courtyard. מינסק – צילום: Jewish-Tour

  Where is Minsk – היכן מינסק

העיר מינסק ממוקמת על גדות הנהרות סוויסלאץ’ – Svislač ו-ניאמיהה -Nyamiha. כבירה הלאומית, למינסק מעמד מיוחד בבלארוס והיא המרכז המנהלי של פרובינציית מינסק ושל מחוז מינסק. בעיר מתגוררים כ-2,002,600 תושבים, ושטחה הכולל הוא כ-305.47 קמ”ר.

Minsk is the capital and largest city of Belarus, situated on the Svislač and the Nyamiha Rivers. The population in January 2018 was 1,982,444, making Minsk the 11th most populous city in Europe.

Minsk. Gift Card. Synagogue in the letter “k”. the beginning of the 20th century

The Name of the City – שם העיר מינסק

כתיב שם העיר משתנה בהתאם ללאום: בבלארוסית: Мінск, ברוסית: Минск, בפולנית: Mińsk. מקור שם העיר אינו נהיר. יתכן שזה קשור לנהר בשם Měn . אין קשר בין מינסק והעיר הפולנית מינסק.

Where did the Jews of Minsk come from?מאיפה באו יהודי מינסק

Jewish immigration from Germany eastward

תולדות מינסק – History of Minsk

The earliest historical references to Minsk date to the 11th century (1067), when it was noted as a provincial city within the Principality of Polotsk. In 1242, Minsk became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It received town privileges in 1499. From 1569, it was a capital of the Minsk Voivodeship, in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was part of a region annexed by the Russian Empire in 1793, as a consequence of the Second Partition of Poland.

Holocaust in Reichskommissariat Ostland, which included Soviet Belarus WW2-Holocaust-Europe.png WW2-Holocaust-ROstland.PNG יוצר WW2-Holocaust-Europe.png: User:Dna-Dennis                                                                                                             מפת מחנות המוות בבלארוס

ההיסטוריה של מינסק דומה לתולדות שקלוב ובוריסוב: נוסדה על ידי העמים הסלאביים המאות ה-6 וה-8 לספירה. בלארוס רואה את עצמה כאחת מיורשותיה (יחד עם רוסיה ואוקראינה) של רוּס” – הכינוי העתיק יותר לארץ הסלאבים המזרחיים שמרכזה היה בקייב.

Rus’ principalities before the Mongol and Lithuanian invasions מפה: SeikoEn                    מפת האיזור של בלארוס בשנים 1220-1240

במאות ה-9 וה-10 נכלל ב-פולאצק. ב-1129 סופחה על ידי קייב. ב-1146 השליטה בנסיכות חזרה לשושלת פולוצק. במאה ה-13 נכלל ב-הדוכסות הליטאית הגדולה. ב-1569, יצר איחוד לובלין את האיחוד הפולני-ליטאי.

הדוכסות הליטאית הגדולה, מפה מאת טוביאס לוטר (Tobias Lotter)‏, 1780                                                Map of The Grand Duchy of Lithuania 1780

ב-1569, יצר איחוד לובלין את האיחוד הפולני-ליטאי-רפובליקת שני העמים – The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1582 יוצר: User:Mathiasrex Maciej Szczepańczyk, based on layers of User:Halibutt  –                                                                       האיחוד הפולני-ליטאי, הידוע גם כרפובליקת שני העמים

מינסק שרדה גלי הרס נוראים. אפשר להגיד שאלימות בדם שלה. (1) גל ההרס הראשון היה הפלישה המונגולית לרוס בשנים 1237–1239. (2) גל ההרס השני היה במלחמת רוסיה-פולין (1654–1667). (3) גל ההרס השלישי היה במלחמה הצפונית הגדולה ב-1708 וב-1709.

ב-1795 לאחר חלוקתה של הממלכה המאוחדת של פולין וליטא, עבר שטחה של בלארוס לאימפריה הרוסית. בני העם הבלארוסי, אוניאטים ברובם, אולצו להמיר את דתם לנצרות פרבוסלבית, ונערכה רוסיפיקציה של התושבים.

בסוף המאה ה-19 אוכלוסית היהודים היתה 45% של העיר מינסק. היו יותר בתי כנסת במינסק מכנסיות. היה רחוב יהודי בו (היום נקרא רחוב קולקטורנאיה) רוכזו גלי הילדים, בתי הספר

ב-1915, העיר הייתה עיר חזית. מספר מפעלים נסגרו והתושבים התחילו להתפנות למזרח. מינסק נהפכה למפקדה של החזית המערבית של הצבא הרוסי והייתה בית לבתי חולים צבאיים ולבסיסי אספקה צבאיים. לאחר מהפכת אוקטובר ב-1917 הוכרזה עצמאותה של הרפובליקה העממית של בלארוס.  בשנים 1918-1921 מינסק ובלארוס עברו ידים בין האדומים, הלבנים, הגרמנים, והפולנים. ב-1921, לפי הסכם ריגה נמסרה העיר לרוסיה ונהפכה לבירת הרפובליקה הסובייטית הסוציאליסטית של בלארוס – אשר ב-1922 הפכה לאחת המייסדות של ברית המועצות.

The First World War affected the development of Minsk tremendously. By 1915, Minsk was a battle-front city. Some factories were closed down, and residents began evacuating to the east. Minsk became the headquarters of the Western Front of the Russian army.

The Russian Revolution had an immediate effect in Minsk. A Workers’ Soviet was established in Minsk in October 1917, drawing much of its support from disaffected soldiers and workers. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, German forces occupied Minsk on 21 February 1918. On 25 March 1918, Minsk was proclaimed the capital of the Belarusian People’s Republic. The republic was short-lived. In December 1918, Minsk was taken over by the Red Army. In January 1919 Minsk was proclaimed the capital of the Belorussian SSR. Later in 1919 (see Operation Minsk) and again in 1920, the city was controlled by the Second Polish Republic during the course of the Polish-Bolshevik War between 8 August 1919 and 11 July 1920 and again between 14 October 1920 and 19 March 1921.

Under the terms of the Peace of Riga, Minsk was handed back to the Russian SFSR (Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic) and became the capital of the Belorussian SSR, one of the founding republics of the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).

הקהילה היהודית של מינסק – The Jewish Community of Minsk

קהילת היהודים במינסק הייתה בין החשובות במזרח אירופה.התפתחותה דומה לזו של העיר שקלוב.

ב-1489 יהודי התמנה על גביית מיסים בעיר מטעם השלטון הליטאי.

יהודים התחילו להתיישב בעיר במאה ה-16.

ב-1579 המלך סטפאן באטורי הוציא אישור ליהודים לסחור בעיר. המלך זיגמונט השלישי ואזה ביטל אישור זה ב-1606 בעקבות פניית הנוצרים. אולם ב-1609 היהודים שוחררו ממסים מיוחדים.

ב-1616 הורשה להם לפרוס בעיר את מרכולתם.

ב-1629 הורשו לפתוח חנויות.

בזמן המלחמה הפולנית-רוסית (1667-‏1654) נטשו היהודים את העיר בעקבות הכיבוש הרוסי ב-1655, אך בחזרתה לפולין ב-1658 חזרו גם היהודים. עדיין ליהודים לא היה אישור להתיישב בעיר והם נאלצו לשכור בתים מאוניאטים, ועקב כך סבלו סבל כפול, שכן הופנתה נגדם שנאת הנוצרים האורתודוקסים, גם כלפי בעלי בתיהם וגם כלפי היהודים עצמם.

בלארוס הייתה ערש התרבות היהודית הליטאית, ובתחמה פעלו ישיבות מפורסמות. בהשפעת הגאון מווילנה (1720-1797) הוקמו בעיר מספר ישיבות. חלק גדול מהיהודים החרדים (אלו שאינם חסידים או ספרדים) שומרים עד היום את ההגדרה של ‘יהודים ליטאים’, שמבחינה היסטורית חלה על כל יהודי בלארוס.

במפקד האוכלוסין שנערך ב-1766 חיו בתחומי בלארוס של היום 62,800 יהודים, כאשר שתי הקהילות הגדולות היו מינסק ופינסק עם כ-1400 יהודים בכל אחת.

מפקד האוכלוסין שערכה רוסיה הצארית ב-1897 גילה כי בתחומי בלארוס של היום חיו 910,000 יהודים (הקבוצה האתנית השנייה בגודלה – 13.6% מתושבי הארץ כולה) היהודים היוו 21% בתחומי האימפריה הרוסית. הקהילה הגדולה ביותר הייתה במינסק (47,560 מתוך 91,494 – 52% מתושבי העיר). בתקופה זו היו היהודים הקבוצה האתנית העירונית הגדולה ביותר בבלארוס (59.4%).

עד למלחמת העולם הראשונה הייתה בבלארוס אוכלוסייה יהודית גדולה ובעלת תרבות מפוארת. הקהילות הגדולות היו במינסק, הרודנה, פינסק, הומל, מוהילב וויטבסק. בערים אלה היוו היהודים אחוז גדול מכלל האוכלוסייה. היה בה גם גרעין של השכלה כללית, שהבולט בחבריה היה חיים נחמן ביאליק. בשלהי המאה ה-19 ובתחילת המאה ה-20 שימשה מרכז לתנועת הפועלים היהודית.

בין שתי מלחמות העולם הייתה בלארוס מחולקת בין ברית המועצות לפולין. ב-1926 חיו בבלארוס (הסובייטית) 407,000 יהודים ומספר דומה של יהודים חי בחלקה הפולני של בלארוס.

בחלק הסובייטי היוו היהודים את הקבוצה האתנית השנייה בגודלה (8%) ואחת השפות הרשמיות של הרפובליקה הסובייטית הסוציאליסטית הבלארוסית הייתה היידיש. בתחילת שנות ה-20 התקיימו חיי קהילה ענפים, אך הללו גוועו עם הקולקטיביזציה והרדיפות של תקופת סטלין.

ברבנות העיר כיהנו והתגוררו רבנים מפורסמים וביניהם: הרב יחיאל היילפרין – מחבר “סדר הדורות”, הרב ירוח�� יהודה ליב פרלמן שכונה ה”גדול ממינסק”, הרב בנימין הכהן שקוביצקי שכונה “המגיד ממינסק”, והרב גרשון תנחום ממינסק.

After the 1569 Polish–Lithuanian union, the city became a destination for migrating Jews (Ashkenazim, who worked in the retail trade and as craftsmen, as other opportunities were prohibited by discrimination laws). Many Minsk residents became polonised, adopting the language of the dominant Poles and assimilating to its culture. After the partition of Poland-Lithuania in 1793, Minsk became part of the Russian Empire. The Russians dominated the city’s culture. At the time of the 1897 census under the Russian Empire, Jews were the largest ethnic group in Minsk, at 52% of the population, with 47,500 of the 91,000 residents. Between the 1880s and 1930s many Jews emigrated from the city to the United States as part of a Belarusian diaspora.

הסכם ריבנטרופ-מולוטוב – The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact

לפני השואה חיו בבלארוס כ-750,000 יהודים, מרביתם בחלקה המערבי, שהיה עד 1939 בשלטון פולין. לא פחות מ-5,295 ישובים בלארוסים נשרפו ונחרבו על ידי הנאצים. פעמים רבות כל התושבים נהרגו – עד 1,500 קורבנות כענש לשיתוף עם הפרטיזנים.

ב-1939 סיפחה ברית המועצות את מערב בלארוס אחרי הסכם ריבנטרופ-מולוטוב. הקהילות בשני חצאי בלארוס היו שונות בתכלית האחת מהשנייה. יהודי מזרח בלארוס היו מעיקרם עירוניים, חילונים ודוברי רוסית – בעוד אלו מהמערב שימרו את תרבות השטעטל, היה בהם אחוז גבוה של דתיים והשפה העיקרית הייתה היידיש.

הסכם ברסט-ליטובסק. מקור http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg יוצר: The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact    Peter Hanula

The Battle of Bialystok-Minsk – June 1941

This video examines a battle that involved over 1.4 million soldiers. The battle was one of the first engagements in Operation Barbarossa, and astoundingly decisive.

German Invasion Of Russia – June 1941

The movie from “British Pathé” below shows panning shot along road of advancing German troops passing retreating Russian prisoners. Various shots of German infantry advancing through smoke and rubble strewn town. Various shots of German tanks advancing through town (possibly Minsk) and across the bridge. Several shots of the German tanks advancing across Russian farmland. Burning Russian tanks seen in cornfields, prisoners walking along. Various shots of German heavy artillery shelling town of Brest-Litowsk. Various shots on outskirts of town, Russian troops with white flags surrender. Shots of large numbers of prisoners being rounded up and marched off. German troops in town mopping up snipers. Various shots of German antiaircraft guns in action. Flak in sky and Russian plane crashes into field. Close up shot of burning wreckage of plane in field.

השואה במינסק – The Holocaust in Minsk

כשהגרמנים פלשו לברית המועצות ב-22 ביוני 1941 כחלק ממבצע ברברוסה, מינסק נמצאה באופן מיידי תחת התקפה. העיר הופצצה ביום הראשון לפלישה ואחרי ארבעה ימים היא עברה לשליטת הוורמאכט. הגרמנים הפכו את העיר למרכז נציבות הרייך אוסטלנד. קומוניסטים נהרגו או נכלאו. ב-1942 מינסק נהפכה למרכז חשוב של תנועת ההתנגדות של הפרטיזנים הסובייטים. עד 1991 הייתה בלארוס “הרפובליקה הסובייטית הסוציאליסטית של בלארוס”, כלומר רפובליקה סובייטית בברית המועצות. באוגוסט 1991, אחרי כישלון ההפיכה במוסקבה, הכריזה בלארוס סופית על עצמאותה.

Under the Nazi occupation of the Second World War, working through local populations, Germans instituted deportation of Jewish citizens to concentration camps, murdering most of them there. The Jewish community of Minsk suffered catastrophic losses in the Holocaust. From more than half the population of the city, the percentage of Jews dropped to less than 10% more than ten years after the war.

אנדרטה בכפר הירוק לזכר מאשה ברוסקינה ושאר הלוחמות היהודיות שנספו במלחמתן נגד הנאצים – Holocaust Memorial in Minsk

Downtown Minsk – Belarusian capital, that was completely demolished in WWII by the bombings. The large building in the distance is an Opera House.                                                                                  מרכז מינדסק אחרי הפגזה

השואה בבלארוס הסובייטית החלה בקיץ 1941, במהלך התקפה גרמנית על עמדות סובייטיות במבצע ברברוסה.מינסק הופצצה והוורמאכט כבש אותה ב-28 ביוני 1941. ב-3 ביולי 1941, במהלך האקציה הראשונה במינסק, הוצעדו 2,000 יהודים בני האינטליגנציה ליער ונרצחו. האיינזצגרופן ביצע מעשי טבח מעבר לגבול הגרמני-סובייטי ותעד בכתב מעשים אלה.

  Minsk-Juden Column of prisoners of the Minsk ghetto on the street. 1941 הארכיון הפדרלי הגרמני Blue pencil.svg wikidata:Q685753 Herrmann, Ernst – Bildbestand (N 1576 Bild) מספר גישה  N 1576 Bild-006                                                                                                                                                              אסירים יהודים 1941

  הארכיון הפדרלי הגרמני Blue pencil.svg wikidata:Q685753 Jews in forced labor in Minsk. February 1942                                                                                                                                     יהודים אסירים 1942 Allgemeiner Deutscher Nachrichtendienst – Zentralbild (Bild 183)

    בשואה הושמדה מרבית הקהילה היהודית. עם כיבושה של בלארוס על ידי גרמניה הנאצית ב-1941 הצליחו חלק מן היהודים להימלט מזרחה (בעיקר מהחלק המזרחי, שהותקף מאוחר יותר), בעוד רוב הנשארים נרצחו. לפי נתונים היסטוריים שונים, בשואה נספו 86% מיהודי מערב בלארוסו-36% מיהודי מזרח בלארוס.

Head of the Minsk ghetto Mikhail Gebelev   ראש הגטו של מינסק

 גטו מינסק -The Minsk Ghetto

The Soviet census of 1926 showed 53,700 Jews living in Minsk constituting close to 41% of the city’s inhabitants.The ghetto was created soon after the German invasion of the Soviet Union and capture of the city of Minsk, capital of the Belorussian SSR, on 28 June 1941. On the fifth day after the occupation, 2,000 Jewish intelligentsia were massacred by the Germans; from then on, murders of Jews became a common occurrence. About 20,000 Jews were murdered within the first few months of the German occupation, mostly by the Einsatzgruppen squads. On 17 July 1941 the German occupational authority, the Reichskommissariat Ostland, was created. On 20 July, the Minsk Ghetto was established. A Jewish Council (Judenrat) was established as well. The total population of the ghetto was about 80,000 (over 100,000 according to some sources), of which about 50,000 were pre-war inhabitants, and the remainder (30,000 or more) were refugees and Jews forcibly resettled by the Germans from nearby settlements. In November 1941 a second ghetto was established in Minsk for Jews deported from the West, known as Ghetto Hamburg, which adjoined the main Minsk ghetto. Above the entrance to this separate ghetto was a sign: Sonderghetto (Special Ghetto). Every night the Gestapo would murder 70–80 of the new arrivals. This ghetto was divided into five sections, according to the places from which the inhabitants came: Hamburg, Frankfurt, Berlin, the Rhineland, Bremen, and Vienna. Most of the Jews in this ghetto were from Germany and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia; at its height it had about 35,000 residents. Little contact was permitted between the inhabitants of the two ghettos. By August fewer than 9,000 Jews were left in the ghetto according to German official documents. The ghetto was liquidated on 21 October 1943, with many Minsk Jews perishing in the Sobibor extermination camp. Several thousand were massacred at Maly Trostenets extermination camp (before the war, Maly Trostenets was a village a few miles to the east of Minsk). By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors.

הגטו של מינסק – The Minsk Ghetto

בעיר מינסק הוקם גטו מינסק, שהיה הגטו שהחזיק הכי הרבה זמן בשטחי ברית המועצות הכבושים. יהודי הגטו הוצאו במספר אקציות להריגה בבורות ענק שנחפרו בקרבת הכפרים טוצ׳ינקה ומאלי טרוסטינץ (ראה מטה). ב-8 ביולי 1941 פקד ריינהרד היידריך לירות בכל היהודים הזכרים בשטח הכבוש בין הגילים 15 ל-45, כ��פרטיזנים סובייטים. באוגוסט צורפו לנורים נשים, ילדים וקשישים.

Map of the Minsk Ghetto by professor Barbara Epstein                                                                     מפת גטו מינסק

Minsk During the Occupation – מינסק כבושה

כ-11,600 יהודים במינסק נלקחו במשאיות אל הכפר הסמוך טוצ’ינקה (טוצ’ינקי) ונורו בידי חברי האיינזצגרופה א’. ההיסטוריון מרטין גילברט כתב כי הקומיסר הכללי שלנציבות הרייך אוסטלנד, וילהלם קובה, השתתף אישית בהרג במרס 1942 בגטו מינסק.

פעולות חיסול בשטחים (כולל העיר מינסק) שנכבשו על ידי הגרמנים מאז יוני 1941 נערכו במספר מקומות בולטים בבלארוס של ימינו. הקורבנות הועברו ברכבת גם לאתר ההשמדה ברונה גורה.

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Museum of History and Culture of Jews of Belarus – מוזיאון תולדות היהודים בבלארוס ותרבותם

Museum of Jewish History and Culture in Belarus is a small museum in Minsk, Belarus. It was founded in 2002 by historian Inna Gerasimova in conjunction with the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. The Joint Committee and the “Union of Belarusian Jewish Organizations and Communities” supports the museum, along with the local Belarusian Jewish community. Offices for local Jewish community services are located in the same building. The entire exhibition of the museum consists of those items that were donated by local residents and their descendants. The earliest exhibits in it date back to the end of the 19th century. The present director is Julia Mikolutzkaya. [All photos with permission of the Museum]

Museum of History and Culture of Jews of Belarus

28 V Khoruzhey Street Minsk, 220 123, Belarus

Tel: 375298018635, 375172867961           minskjewishmuseum@gmail.com                Opening hours: Mon – Sun – By appointment – Free admission

A virtual tour of the museum is available in English.

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  פרויקט הנצחת זכרון השואה – Project Anne Frank and the Memory of the Second World War in Belarus

Video was created in Minsk on 27-29 of August 2015 in the framework of the project Anne Frank and the Memory of the Second World War in Belarus supported by the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Konrad Adenauer Foundation.

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Belarusian State Museum of the History of the Great Patriotic War – מוזיאון בלארוס לזכר מלחמת העולם השניה

The Belarusian State Museum of the History of the Great Patriotic War was the world’s first museum to tell the story of the bloodiest war of the 20th century (founded 30 September 1943 in Moscow since Minsk had been evactuated). In August 1944 it was moved to the liberated Minsk to one of the few intact buildings in the destructed and looted Minsk. Today it is one of the most important and biggest war museums in the world, along with the well-stocked museums in Moscow, Kiev, and New Orleans. In those terrible years Belarus lost every third resident. More than 3 million people died, including about 50,000 partisans and underground fighters. Throughout the country there were 250 death camps, including the infamous Trostenets, one of the largest after Auschwitz, Majdanek and Treblinka. The museum does not mention Jews as such, only Belarus citizens. The audio guide does not include Yiddish.

Belarusian Great Patriotic War Museum Photo: Julian Nyča

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 Minsk Holocaust Monument in Jerusalem –  אנדרטת שואת מינסק בירושלים

אלפים מיהודי הגטו נמלטו ממנו ליערות הסמוכים ולחמו שם כנגד הגרמנים (למשל, מאשה ברוסקינה). אחרוני היהודים בגטו, שהועסקו בעבודות כפיה נשלחו אל מותם במחנההמוות סוביבור, או שנורו למוות בחודשים ספטמבר-אוקטובר 1943. כנראה, רק 13 יהודים שרדו את הגטו.

Minsk Jewery memorial at , Kiriat Shaul Cemetery’ Israel צילום: דוד שי

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Holocaust Monuments in Minsk –  אנדרטות שואה במינסק

The monument to victims of Minsk ghetto at Pritytskogo street, Minsk, Belarus צילום:Vadim Sazanovich                                                                                                                                                                   אנדרטה לקרבנות השואה במינסק

El Maleh Rachamim/G-D Full of Mercy/ Kaddish

  שיקום הקהילה היהודית במינסק – Rebuilding the Jewish Community after the War

לאחר המלחמה חזרו חלק מן הניצולים לבלארוס. החיים היהודיים קמו לתחייה האופן יחסי בהשואה ליתר לברית המועצות. במינסק התנהל תיאטרון יהודי בהנהלת שלמה מיכאלס; בקהילות רבות הוסיפו להתקיים רבנים ובתי כנסת. בסוף שנות ה-40 של המאה ה-20 ידעה העיר התנכלויות של השלטונות לפעילות היהודית. בינואר 1948 על ידי סוכני הק.ג.ב. נרצח ראש התיאטרון היהודי שלמה מיכואלס, יושב ראש הוועד, בתאונת דרכים מבוימת . ב-1949 נסגר התיאטרון היהודי ועובדיו פוטרו. לאחר רצח מיכאלס ומשפט הרופאים ב-1953, חוסלה מרבית הפעילות. נוסף על כך, השלטונות הסובייטים עודדו יהודים רבים לעזוב את בלארוס ואוקראינה ולהתיישב בעומק רוסיה ומרכז אסיה, כדי לפתח את האזורים הללו מבחינה כלכלית.

ב-1959 הוחרם בית הכנסת הגדול, ובניינו עבר לידי תיאטרון גורקי. ב-1959 האו��לוסייה היהודית מנתה 38,842 נפשות. בשנות ה-60 נאסר על קבורה בבית הקברות היהודי, ולאחר מכן הוא נהרס ונהפך לאצטדיון דינמו.

בתקופת הפרסטרויקה התחדשה הפעילות הקהילתית. ב-1988 הוקמה “אגודת חובבי התרבות היהודית” על שם יצחק חריק. ב-1989 נפתח בית הספר היהודי החד שבועי על ידי יורי דורן, שלאחר מכן הקים את iro – התאחדות יהודי בלארוס. בלארוסים כחסידי אומות העולם. כל האותות הוענקו לאחר פירוק ברית המועצות. רבים מהמעוטרים באות הגיעו ממינסק, ועד כה כבר נפטרו.

בשנות ה-90 של המאה ה-20 התעוררו החיים היהודיים שוב; הוקמו בתי ספר במקומות שונים, ושבו רבנים לעמוד בראש הקהילות. לפני תחילת העלייה גדולה של שנות ה-90 היו בבלארוס 112,000 יהודים. בין השנים 1990–2004 עלו לישראל כ-70,000 עולים מבלארוס.

כיום קיימים במינסק שני בתי כנסת של התאחדות יהודי בלארוס – האחד מתפלל בנוסח אשכנז, והאחר של חסידות חב”ד, בראשות שליח חב”ד במקום הרב שניאור זלמן דייטש. עד ינואר 2017 הכיר יד ושם ב-641 חסידי אומות העולם.

מינסק בשנות ה-30     Minsk in the 1930s

מינסק היום – Minsk Today

Minister of sport and tourism in Belarus released an official video clip promoting spiritual Jewish tourism to Belarus. In Belarus there are buildings of formerly world famous yeshivas in such shtetls as Radun, Mir, Volozhyn, Baranovichy. There are buildings of former synagogues, few graves of famous Rabbis; the most often visited one is the grave of Rabbi Chofetz Chaim.

ביבליוגרפיה

IN AUGUST OF 1944 Russian-Belarusian WWII movie with English subtitles

יומנו השלם של אברהם זלמן כהן: Hebrew autobiograhy of Abraham Zalman Cohen describing Jewish life in Czarist White Russian village of Bogushevichi, Communist Revolution, escape and immigration to the United State, work in New York City and Peekskill, NY and building a family in the Jewish Community of Ossining, NY/

Forty Five Years on the Block – The Autobiography Of Abraham Zalman Cohen: אנגלית

מכתבים ששלח אליהו – צבי – הירש כהן – כגן מבלרוס אל בנו ואל קרובי משפחתו בארה”ב : Letters sent by Eliahu – Zvi – Hirsh Cohen – Kagan to his son, Avraham – Zalman Cohen, in 1927 through 1937

  המלצה של הושבילים:-  Jewish Tour Agency 

The Jewish Tour Agency was founded in 2005 to provide the Jews from different countries of the world with the possibility to discover, to explore and to study the rich Jewish heritage of Belarus, offering offers group and individual tours over Belarus, Lithuania, Poland, Russia and Ukraine.

Minsk, 220002 Belarus   Daumana 13B, office 7     Tel: +375 17 288 69 58    + 375 29 65 65 965       info@jewish-tour.com

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All the links to our pilgrimage to Belarus

מינסק – Minsk

יאמא – Yama

מאלי טרוסטינץ – Maly Trostinets

חאטין –  Khatyn

בורוסוב – Borisov

שקלוב – Shklov

םוגילב – Mogilev

בושאַוויץ – Bogushevichi

סמילביצ׳י – Смілавічы

מינסק – Минск – Minsk היכונו למסע צליינות וחיפוש אחר מקורות המשפחה שלי ברוסיה הלבנה - הן מצד אבא והן מצד אמא.

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 7.11 (after 1900)

1906 – Murder of Grace Brown by Chester Gillette in the United States, inspiration for Theodore Dreiser's An American Tragedy. 1914 – Babe Ruth makes his debut in Major League Baseball. 1914 – The US Navy launches the USS Nevada (BB-36) as its first standard-type battleship. 1919 – The eight-hour day and free Sunday become law for workers in the Netherlands. 1920 – In the East Prussian plebiscite the local populace decides to remain with Weimar Germany. 1921 – A truce in the Irish War of Independence comes into effect. 1921 – The Red Army captures Mongolia from the White Army and establishes the Mongolian People's Republic. 1921 – Former president of the United States William Howard Taft is sworn in as 10th chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, becoming the only person ever to hold both offices. 1922 – The Hollywood Bowl opens. 1934 – Engelbert Zaschka of Germany flies his large human-powered aircraft, the Zaschka Human-Power Aircraft, about 20 meters at Berlin Tempelhof Airport without assisted take-off. 1936 – The Triborough Bridge in New York City is opened to traffic. 1940 – World War II: Vichy France regime is formally established. 1943 – Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine (Volhynia) peak. 1943 – World War II: Allied invasion of Sicily: German and Italian troops launch a counter-attack on Allied forces in Sicily. 1947 – The Exodus 1947 heads to Palestine from France. 1950 – Pakistan joins the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank. 1960 – France legislates for the independence of Dahomey (later Benin), Upper Volta (later Burkina Faso) and Niger. 1960 – Congo Crisis: The State of Katanga breaks away from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1960 – To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is first published, in the United States. 1962 – First transatlantic satellite television transmission. 1962 – Project Apollo: At a press conference, NASA announces lunar orbit rendezvous as the means to land astronauts on the Moon, and return them to Earth. 1971 – Copper mines in Chile are nationalized. 1972 – The first game of the World Chess Championship 1972 between challenger Bobby Fischer and defending champion Boris Spassky starts. 1973 – Varig Flight 820 crashes near Paris on approach to Orly Airport, killing 123 of the 134 on board. In response, the FAA bans smoking in airplane lavatories. 1977 – Martin Luther King Jr., assassinated in 1968, is awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. 1978 – Los Alfaques disaster: A truck carrying liquid gas crashes and explodes at a coastal campsite in Tarragona, Spain killing 216 tourists. 1979 – America's first space station, Skylab, is destroyed as it re-enters the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean. 1982 – The Italy National Football Team defeats West Germany at Santiago Bernabéu Stadium to capture the 1982 FIFA World Cup. 1983 – A TAME airline Boeing 737–200 crashes near Cuenca, Ecuador, killing all 119 passengers and crew on board. 1990 – Oka Crisis: First Nations land dispute in Quebec begins. 1991 – Nigeria Airways Flight 2120 crashes in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, killing all 261 passengers and crew on board. 1995 – Yugoslav Wars: Srebrenica massacre begins; lasts until 22 July. 2006 – Mumbai train bombings: Two hundred nine people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Mumbai, India. 2010 – The Islamist militia group Al-Shabaab carried out multiple suicide bombings in Kampala, Uganda, killing 74 people and injuring 85 others. 2010 – Spain defeat the Netherlands to win the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Johannesburg. 2011 – Ninety-eight containers of explosives self-detonate killing 13 people in Zygi, Cyprus. 2015 – Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán escapes from the maximum security Altiplano prison in Mexico, his second escape. 2021 – Richard Branson becomes the first civilian to be launched into space via his Virgin Galactic spacecraft.

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 7.11

472 – After being besieged in Rome by his own generals, Western Roman Emperor Anthemius is captured in St. Peter's Basilica and put to death. 813 – Byzantine emperor Michael I, under threat by conspiracies, abdicates in favor of his general Leo the Armenian, and becomes a monk (under the name Athanasius). 911 – Signing of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between Charles the Simple and Rollo of Normandy. 1174 – Baldwin IV, 13, becomes King of Jerusalem, with Raymond III, Count of Tripoli as regent and William of Tyre as chancellor. 1302 – Battle of the Golden Spurs (Guldensporenslag in Dutch): A coalition around the Flemish cities defeats the king of France's royal army. 1346 – Charles IV, Count of Luxembourg and King of Bohemia, is elected King of the Romans. 1405 – Ming admiral Zheng He sets sail to explore the world for the first time. 1410 – Ottoman Interregnum: Süleyman Çelebi defeats his brother Musa Çelebi outside the Ottoman capital, Edirne. 1476 – Giuliano della Rovere is appointed bishop of Coutances. 1576 – While exploring the North Atlantic Ocean in an attempt to find the Northwest Passage, Martin Frobisher sights Greenland, mistaking it for the hypothesized (but non-existent) island of "Frisland". 1616 – Samuel de Champlain returns to Quebec. 1735 – Mathematical calculations suggest that it is on this day that dwarf planet Pluto moved inside the orbit of Neptune for the last time before 1979. 1789 – Jacques Necker is dismissed as France's Finance Minister sparking the Storming of the Bastille. 1796 – The United States takes possession of Detroit from Great Britain under terms of the Jay Treaty. 1798 – The United States Marine Corps is re-established; they had been disbanded after the American Revolutionary War. 1801 – French astronomer Jean-Louis Pons makes his first comet discovery. In the next 27 years he discovers another 36 comets, more than any other person in history. 1804 – A duel occurs in which the Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr mortally wounds former Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. 1833 – Noongar Australian aboriginal warrior Yagan, wanted for the murder of white colonists in Western Australia, is killed. 1848 – Waterloo railway station in London opens. 1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Fort Stevens; Confederate forces attempt to invade Washington, D.C. 1882 – The British Mediterranean Fleet begins the Bombardment of Alexandria in Egypt as part of the Anglo-Egyptian War. 1889 – Tijuana, Mexico, is founded. 1893 – The first cultured pearl is obtained by Kōkichi Mikimoto. 1893 – A revolution led by the liberal general and politician José Santos Zelaya takes over state power in Nicaragua. 1897 – Salomon August Andrée leaves Spitsbergen to attempt to reach the North Pole by balloon. 1899 – Fiat founded by Giovanni Agnelli in Turin, Italy. 1906 – Murder of Grace Brown by Chester Gillette in the United States, inspiration for Theodore Dreiser's An American Tragedy. 1914 – Babe Ruth makes his debut in Major League Baseball. 1914 – USS Nevada (BB-36) is launched. 1919 – The eight-hour day and free Sunday become law for workers in the Netherlands. 1920 – In the East Prussian plebiscite the local populace decides to remain with Weimar Germany. 1921 – A truce in the Irish War of Independence comes into effect. 1921 – The Red Army captures Mongolia from the White Army and establishes the Mongolian People's Republic. 1921 – Former president of the United States William Howard Taft is sworn in as 10th chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, becoming the only person ever to hold both offices. 1922 – The Hollywood Bowl opens. 1924 – Eric Liddell won the gold medal in 400m at the 1924 Paris Olympics, after refusing to run in the heats for 100m, his favoured distance, on the Sunday. 1934 – Engelbert Zaschka of Germany flies his large human-powered aircraft, the Zaschka Human-Power Aircraft, about 20 meters at Berlin Tempelhof Airport without assisted take-off. 1936 – The Triborough Bridge in New York City is opened to traffic. 1940 – World War II: Vichy France regime is formally established. Philippe Pétain becomes Chief of the French State. 1941 – The Northern Rhodesian Labour Party holds its first congress in Nkana. 1943 – Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine (Volhynia) peak. 1943 – World War II: Allied invasion of Sicily: German and Italian troops launch a counter-attack on Allied forces in Sicily. 1947 – The Exodus 1947 heads to Palestine from France. 1950 – Pakistan joins the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank. 1957 – Prince Karim Husseini Aga Khan IV inherits the office of Imamat as the 49th Imam of Shia Imami Ismai'li worldwide, after the death of Sir Sultan Mahommed Shah Aga Khan III. 1960 – France legislates for the independence of Dahomey (later Benin), Upper Volta (later Burkina) and Niger. 1960 – Congo Crisis: The State of Katanga breaks away from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1960 – To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is first published, in the United States. 1962 – First transatlantic satellite television transmission. 1962 – Project Apollo: At a press conference, NASA announces lunar orbit rendezvous as the means to land astronauts on the Moon, and return them to Earth. 1971 – Copper mines in Chile are nationalized. 1972 – The first game of the World Chess Championship 1972 between challenger Bobby Fischer and defending champion Boris Spassky starts. 1973 – Varig Flight 820 crashes near Paris, France on approach to Orly Airport, killing 123 of the 134 on board. In response, the FAA bans smoking in airplane lavatories. 1977 – Martin Luther King Jr., assassinated in 1968, is awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. 1978 – Los Alfaques disaster: A truck carrying liquid gas crashes and explodes at a coastal campsite in Tarragona, Spain killing 216 tourists. 1979 – America's first space station, Skylab, is destroyed as it re-enters the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean. 1983 – A TAME airline Boeing 737-200 crashes near Cuenca, Ecuador, killing all 119 passengers and crew on board. 1990 – Oka Crisis: First Nations land dispute in Quebec, Canada begins. 1991 – Nigeria Airways Flight 2120 crashes in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia killing all 261 passengers and crew on board. 1995 – Yugoslav Wars: Srebrenica massacre begins; lasts until 22 July. 2006 – Mumbai train bombings: Two hundred nine people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Mumbai, India. 2010 – The Islamist militia group Al-Shabaab carried out multiple suicide bombings in Kampala, Uganda, killing 74 people and injuring 85 others. 2011 – Ninety-eight containers of explosives self-detonate killing 13 people in Zygi, Cyprus. 2015 – Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán escapes from the maximum security prison in Altiplano, in Mexico. It's his second escape.

[mitzvatemet]

Ghetto in Rechytsa

https://mitzvatemet.com/en/burials61 - online burials catalog.

Rechytsa is the center of the district of the same name and one of the oldest settlements in Belarus. According to 1939 data, 7.2 thousand Jews lived here, who made up 24% of the local population. The city was occupied in August 1941. There are reports that local authorities persuaded Jews to evacuate. Those who decided to leave chose the wrong direction and found themselves in the occupied settlements of Belarus.

The city was occupied in August 1941. Rechytsa became part of the Zhytomyr District of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine. A week and a half after the capture of the city, the Nazis conducted a census of the Jewish population. A prohibition was introduced on the appearance of Jews in public places. When going outside, they had to wear insignia.

Even before the ghetto was created in the city, several cases of the extermination of Jews were known. Therefore, in September 1941, Einsatzkommando 7b destroyed about 200 people. They were rebuilding a bridge over the Dnieper River two kilometers from the city. In October 1941, a representative of the occupation authorities, Obergefreiter Heinz Fischer, killed nine people who came across him on the road.

In mid-November 1941, the Nazis created a ghetto. Everyone who was registered as a Jew by the invaders was driven in two buildings at the corner of Sovetskaya and Frunze Streets. The ghetto created on the territory of the former prison was of a closed type. It was surrounded by barbed wire. You could go outside through one entrance, near which there was a police booth.

The concentration of the population in the ghetto was high. According to eyewitnesses, there were up to 40 people in the room. The prisoners could only stand in the rooms. During the day, the invaders took some of the prisoners to work. Then the ghetto became freer.

About a dozen cases of abuse of ghetto prisoners have been documented. Instead of horses, they were harnessed to carts with loads and lowered into wells.

The Nazis began the extermination of the ghetto prisoners on November 25, 1941. Seven cars drove up to the ghetto. Each accommodated more than 40 people. The prisoners were told that they were going to harvest vegetables at a neighboring collective farm.

Three places of extermination of Jews have been established:

• An anti-tank ditch in the area of ​​the tuberculosis sanatorium, where the Nazis destroyed the prisoners of the ghetto. About 3 thousand people died here.

• A forest near the village of Ozershchina, where the invaders in November 1941 shot about 80 people who were caught in Rechytsa and the surrounding villages.

• Anti-tank ditches in the area of ​​the village of Bronnoye, where the invaders shot about 2 Jews in December 1941.

In total, according to official data, about 3.5 thousand Jews perished in the Rechytsa area. In 1946, a memorial to the victims was erected at the Jewish cemetery, funded by the local community.

https://mitzvatemet.com/en/burials61 - online burials catalog. #mitzvatemet #JewishGenealogy

[mitzvatemet]

Holocaust in Nikolaev

https://mitzvatemet.com/en/burials141 - online burials catalog.

According to the 1939 census, 25.2 thousand Jews lived in the city. They made up 15.2% of citizens. Parts of them were managed to be evacuated together with shipbuilding plants as engineering and technical workers.The report of the city’s field commandant dated October 5, 1941 has been preserved. According to the document, at the time of the Nazis' entry into Nikolaev, there were about 6 thousand Jews in it. Invaders captured the city on August 15, 1941. The south of Ukraine was divided into German and Romanian zones of occupation. Ghettos were created only in territories controlled by Romanians. 

Nikolaev became the general district within the territory named by the occupiers of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine.In the early days, the Nazis hanged 8 Jews, accusing them of robbery. Further events developed according to the worked out scenario. An Einsatzgruppe arrived in the city to prepare for the destruction aktion. The Nazis created a Jewish council, which was supposed to deal with the registration of the population. Already at the end of August, 227 Jews were killed a kilometer from the city, whom the occupiers accused of evading registration. The bodies were buried in a ravine at a depth of 2 meters. The firing squad consisted of two groups of 12-15 people. Victims were transported by truck and unloaded from the number of shooters from 24 to 30 people. The execution lasted from 7 a.m. to mid-day.On September 14, 1941, the occupation authorities issued an order to all Jews from September 16 to come to the area of ​​the Jewish cemetery for resettlement. They should have documents, values ​​and things with them. After registration, doctors and members of mixed families were released. The rest were placed in a cemetery surrounded by a high fence. Once a day, the prisoners were taken out under escort to collect water in a well along Vtoraya Ingulskaya Street.The executions began on September 21, 1941. First, men were taken out of the cemetery, under the pretext of participating in agricultural work. Executions took place 12 km from the city in a ravine between the villages of Kalinovka, Gorokhovka and Voskresenskoye. For three days, 22 cars brought to the place of execution more than 5 thousand people.At the end of September 1941, the Nazis re-registered the residents. The city counted 89 thousand people. The column “Jews” in the document has a dash.However, this did not prevent the Nazis from September-October 1941 to conduct another aktion to identify those Jews who did not appear for registration. They were shot in the vicinity of the village of Temnovod.In 1942, another 40 people were executed, who were released during registration in September 1941.Before the retreat in early 1944, the invaders tried to hide the traces of crime.

https://mitzvatemet.com/en/burials141 - online burials catalog.

#mitzvatemet #JewishGenealogy

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 7.11

472 – After being besieged in Rome by his own generals, Western Roman Emperor Anthemius is captured in St. Peter's Basilica and put to death. 813 – Byzantine emperor Michael I, under threat by conspiracies, abdicates in favor of his general Leo the Armenian, and becomes a monk (under the name Athanasius). 911 – Signing of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between Charles the Simple and Rollo of Normandy. 1174 – Baldwin IV, 13, becomes King of Jerusalem, with Raymond III, Count of Tripoli as regent and William of Tyre as chancellor. 1302 – Battle of the Golden Spurs (Guldensporenslag in Dutch): A coalition around the Flemish cities defeats the king of France's royal army. 1346 – Charles IV, Count of Luxembourg and King of Bohemia, is elected King of the Romans. 1405 – Ming admiral Zheng He sets sail to explore the world for the first time. 1476 – Giuliano della Rovere is appointed bishop of Coutances. 1576 – While exploring the North Atlantic Ocean in an attempt to find the Northwest Passage, Martin Frobisher sights Greenland, mistaking it for the hypothesized (but non-existent) island of "Frisland". 1616 – Samuel de Champlain returns to Quebec. 1735 – Mathematical calculations suggest that it is on this day that dwarf planet Pluto moved inside the orbit of Neptune for the last time before 1979. 1789 – Jacques Necker is dismissed as France's Finance Minister sparking the Storming of the Bastille. 1796 – The United States takes possession of Detroit from Great Britain under terms of the Jay Treaty. 1798 – The United States Marine Corps is re-established; they had been disbanded after the American Revolutionary War. 1801 – French astronomer Jean-Louis Pons makes his first comet discovery. In the next 27 years he discovers another 36 comets, more than any other person in history. 1804 – A duel occurs in which the Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr mortally wounds former Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. 1833 – Noongar Australian aboriginal warrior Yagan, wanted for the murder of white colonists in Western Australia, is killed. 1848 – Waterloo railway station in London opens. 1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Fort Stevens; Confederate forces attempt to invade Washington, D.C. 1882 – The British Mediterranean Fleet begins the Bombardment of Alexandria in Egypt as part of the Anglo-Egyptian War. 1889 – Tijuana, Mexico, is founded. 1893 – The first cultured pearl is obtained by Kōkichi Mikimoto. 1893 – A revolution led by the liberal general and politician José Santos Zelaya takes over state power in Nicaragua. 1895 – Brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière demonstrate movie film technology to scientists. 1897 – Salomon August Andrée leaves Spitsbergen to attempt to reach the North Pole by balloon. He later crashes and dies. 1899 – Fiat founded by Giovanni Agnelli in Turin, Italy. 1906 – Murder of Grace Brown by Chester Gillette in the United States, inspiration for Theodore Dreiser's An American Tragedy. 1914 – Babe Ruth makes his debut in Major League Baseball. 1914 – USS Nevada (BB-36) is launched. 1919 – The eight-hour day and free Sunday become law for workers in the Netherlands. 1920 – In the East Prussian plebiscite the local populace decides to remain with Weimar Germany. 1921 – A truce in the Irish War of Independence comes into effect. 1921 – The Red Army captures Mongolia from the White Army and establishes the Mongolian People's Republic. 1921 – Former president of the United States William Howard Taft is sworn in as 10th chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, becoming the only person ever to hold both offices. 1922 – The Hollywood Bowl opens. 1924 – Eric Liddell won the gold medal in 400m at the 1924 Paris Olympics, after refusing to run in the heats for 100m, his favoured distance, on the Sunday. 1934 – Engelbert Zaschka of Germany flies his large human-powered aircraft, the Zaschka Human-Power Aircraft, about 20 meters at Berlin Tempelhof Airport without assisted take-off. 1936 – The Triborough Bridge in New York City is opened to traffic. 1940 – World War II: Vichy France regime is formally established. Philippe Pétain becomes Chief of the French State. 1941 – The Northern Rhodesian Labour Party holds its first congress in Nkana. 1943 – Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine (Volhynia) peak. 1943 – World War II: Allied invasion of Sicily: German and Italian troops launch a counter-attack on Allied forces in Sicily. 1947 – The Exodus 1947 heads to Palestine from France. 1950 – Pakistan joins the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank. 1957 – Prince Karim Husseini Aga Khan IV inherits the office of Imamat as the 49th Imam of Shia Imami Ismai'li worldwide, after the death of Sir Sultan Mahommed Shah Aga Khan III. 1960 – France legislates for the independence of Dahomey (later Benin), Upper Volta (later Burkina) and Niger. 1960 – Congo Crisis: The State of Katanga breaks away from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1960 – To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is first published, in the United States. 1962 – First transatlantic satellite television transmission. 1962 – Project Apollo: At a press conference, NASA announces lunar orbit rendezvous as the means to land astronauts on the Moon, and return them to Earth. 1971 – Copper mines in Chile are nationalized. 1972 – The first game of the World Chess Championship 1972 between challenger Bobby Fischer and defending champion Boris Spassky starts. 1973 – Varig Flight 820 crashes near Paris, France on approach to Orly Airport, killing 123 of the 134 on board. In response, the FAA bans smoking in airplane lavatories. 1977 – Martin Luther King, Jr. is posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. 1978 – Los Alfaques disaster: A truck carrying liquid gas crashes and explodes at a coastal campsite in Tarragona, Spain killing 216 tourists. 1979 – America's first space station, Skylab, is destroyed as it re-enters the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean. 1983 – A TAME airline Boeing 737-200 crashes near Cuenca, Ecuador, killing all 119 passengers and crew on board. 1990 – Oka Crisis: First Nations land dispute in Quebec, Canada begins. 1991 – Nigeria Airways Flight 2120 crashes in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia killing all 261 passengers and crew on board. 1995 – Yugoslav Wars: Srebrenica massacre begins; lasts until 22 July. 2006 – Mumbai train bombings: Two hundred nine people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Mumbai, India. 2010 – The Islamist militia group Al-Shabaab carried out multiple suicide bombings in Kampala, Uganda, killing 74 people and injuring 85 others. 2011 – Ninety-eight containers of explosives self-detonate killing 13 people in Zygi, Cyprus.

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 7.11

472 – After being besieged in Rome by his own generals, Western Roman Emperor Anthemius is captured in St. Peter's Basilica and put to death. 813 – Byzantine emperor Michael I, under threat by conspiracies, abdicates in favor of his general Leo the Armenian, and becomes a monk (under the name Athanasius). 911 – Signing of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between Charles the Simple and Rollo of Normandy. 1174 – Baldwin IV, 13, becomes King of Jerusalem, with Raymond III, Count of Tripoli as regent and William of Tyre as chancellor. 1302 – Battle of the Golden Spurs (Guldensporenslag in Dutch): A coalition around the Flemish cities defeats the king of France's royal army. 1346 – Charles IV, Count of Luxembourg and King of Bohemia, is elected King of the Romans. 1405 – Ming admiral Zheng He sets sail to explore the world for the first time. 1476 – Giuliano della Rovere is appointed bishop of Coutances. 1576 – Martin Frobisher sights Greenland. 1616 – Samuel de Champlain returns to Quebec. 1735 – Mathematical calculations suggest that it is on this day that dwarf planet Pluto moved inside the orbit of Neptune for the last time before 1979. 1789 – Jacques Necker is dismissed as France's Finance Minister sparking the Storming of the Bastille. 1796 – The United States takes possession of Detroit from Great Britain under terms of the Jay Treaty. 1798 – The United States Marine Corps is re-established; they had been disbanded after the American Revolutionary War. 1801 – French astronomer Jean-Louis Pons makes his first comet discovery. In the next 27 years he discovers another 36 comets, more than any other person in history. 1804 – A duel occurs in which the Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr mortally wounds former Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. 1833 – Noongar Australian aboriginal warrior Yagan, wanted for the murder of white colonists in Western Australia, is killed. 1848 – Waterloo railway station in London opens. 1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Fort Stevens; Confederate forces attempt to invade Washington, D.C. 1882 – The British Mediterranean Fleet begins the Bombardment of Alexandria in Egypt as part of the Anglo-Egyptian War. 1889 – Tijuana, Mexico, is founded. 1893 – The first cultured pearl is obtained by Kōkichi Mikimoto. 1893 – A revolution led by the liberal general and politician José Santos Zelaya takes over state power in Nicaragua. 1895 – Brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière demonstrate movie film technology to scientists. 1897 – Salomon August Andrée leaves Spitsbergen to attempt to reach the North Pole by balloon. He later crashes and dies. 1899 – Fiat founded by [Giovanni Agnelli]] in [Turin, Italy. 1906 – Murder of Grace Brown by Chester Gillette in the United States, inspiration for Theodore Dreiser's An American Tragedy. 1914 – Babe Ruth makes his debut in Major League Baseball. 1914 – USS Nevada (BB-36) is launched. 1919 – The eight-hour day and free Sunday become law for workers in the Netherlands. 1920 – In the East Prussian plebiscite the local populace decides to remain with Weimar Germany. 1921 – A truce in the Irish War of Independence comes into effect. 1921 – The Red Army captures Mongolia from the White Army and establishes the Mongolian People's Republic. 1921 – Former president of the United States William Howard Taft is sworn in as 10th chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, becoming the only person ever to hold both offices. 1922 – The Hollywood Bowl opens. 1924 – Eric Liddell won the gold medal in 400m at the 1924 Paris Olympics, after refusing to run in the heats for 100m, his favoured distance, on the Sunday. 1934 – Engelbert Zaschka of Germany flies his large human-powered aircraft, the Zaschka Human-Power Aircraft, about 20 meters at Berlin Tempelhof Airport without assisted take-off. 1936 – The Triborough Bridge in New York City is opened to traffic. 1940 – World War II: Vichy France regime is formally established. Philippe Pétain becomes Chief of the French State. 1941 – The Northern Rhodesian Labour Party holds its first congress in Nkana. 1943 – Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine (Volhynia) peak. 1943 – World War II: Allied invasion of Sicily: German and Italian troops launch a counter-attack on Allied forces in Sicily. 1947 – The Exodus 1947 heads to Palestine from France. 1950 – Pakistan joins the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank. 1957 – Prince Karim Husseini Aga Khan IV inherits the office of Imamat as the 49th Imam of Shia Imami Ismai'li worldwide, after the death of Sir Sultan Mahommed Shah Aga Khan III. 1960 – France legislates for the independence of Dahomey (later Benin), Upper Volta (later Burkina) and Niger. 1960 – Congo Crisis: The State of Katanga breaks away from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1960 – To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is first published, in the United States. 1962 – First transatlantic satellite television transmission. 1962 – Project Apollo: At a press conference, NASA announces lunar orbit rendezvous as the means to land astronauts on the Moon, and return them to Earth. 1971 – Copper mines in Chile are nationalized. 1972 – The first game of the World Chess Championship 1972 between challenger Bobby Fischer and defending champion Boris Spassky starts. 1973 – Varig Flight 820 crashes near Paris, France on approach to Orly Airport, killing 123 of the 134 on board. In response, the FAA bans smoking in airplane lavatories. 1977 – Martin Luther King, Jr. is posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. 1978 – Los Alfaques disaster: A truck carrying liquid gas crashes and explodes at a coastal campsite in Tarragona, Spain killing 216 tourists. 1979 – America's first space station, Skylab, is destroyed as it re-enters the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean. 1983 – A TAME airline Boeing 737-200 crashes near Cuenca, Ecuador, killing all 119 passengers and crew on board.[1] 1990 – Oka Crisis: First Nations land dispute in Quebec, Canada begins. 1991 – Nigeria Airways Flight 2120 crashes in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia killing all 261 passengers and crew on board. 1995 – Yugoslav Wars: Srebrenica massacre begins; lasts until 22 July. 2006 – Mumbai train bombings: Two hundred nine people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Mumbai, India. 2010 – Kampala attacks: At least 74 people are killed in twin suicide bombings at two locations in Kampala, Uganda 2011 – Evangelos Florakis Naval Base explosion: Ninety-eight containers of explosives self-detonate killing 13 people in Zygi, Cyprus.