foodproductionproject

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Sources

Article by: Jenny Rogers | Photos by: Erich Schlegel. (2017, August 29). Outtakes: Life Among the Modern Maya. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://blog.nature.org/science/magazine/outtakes-life-among-the-modern-maya/

Aztec Agriculture. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from http://www.aztec-history.com/aztec-agriculture.html

Aztec Agriculture: Floating Farms Fed the People. (2018, June 14). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.historyonthenet.com/aztec-agriculture-floating-farms-fed-the-people

Aztec Farming and Agriculture. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://aztecsandtenochtitlan.com/aztec-civilisation/aztec-economy/aztec-farming-and-agriculture/

Chicomecoatl. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://journeyingtothegoddess.wordpress.com/tag/chicomecoatl/

Chicomecóatl. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chicomecoatl

Ebel, R. (2020, February 01). Chinampas: An Urban Farming Model of the Aztecs and a Potential Solution for Modern Megalopolis. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://journals.ashs.org/horttech/view/journals/horttech/30/1/article-p13.xml

Food - What did the Mayans eat? (2018, September 14). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.belizemayanruins.com/food/

Home. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://mayansandtikal.com/mayan-civilisation/mayan-farming/#Raised-Bed-Farming

How the Aztecs could improve modern urban farming. (2019, November 01). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/11/191101183430.htm

Mayan Farming and Maya Agricultural Methods. (2018, April 11). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.historyonthenet.com/mayan-farming

Nigh, R., & Diemont, S. A. (2013, August 01). The Maya milpa: Fire and the legacy of living soil. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1890/120344

PHOTO ESSAY: The Last Floating Farms of Mexico City. (2019, December 05). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://modernfarmer.com/2019/12/photo-essay-the-last-floating-farms-of-mexico-city/

Popkin, G. (2017, February 03). Mayans Have Farmed The Same Way For Millennia. Climate Change Means They Can't. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/02/03/510272265/mayans-have-farmed-the-same-way-for-millennia-climate-change-means-they-cant

Sustainable milpa farming: Preserving an ancient Maya tradition. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.planetforward.org/idea/yucatan_milpa_agriculture_climate

UNUniversity. (n.d.). The Aztecs of Mexico: A Zero Waste Society. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/the-aztecs-of-mexico-a-zero-waste-society

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Modern Day Farming in Mexico

While the Aztec empire might not be around anymore, the living descendants of this once powerful civilization still are. With plentiful chinampas being a cornerstone in the expansion of the Aztec empire, unfortunately today that is not the case. With modern agriculture techniques and technology coming into play and easing the workload associated with food production, chinampas came close to being a relic of the past. However, with a resurgence of sustainability, and eco-tourism becoming a competitive market holidays, some communities have taken it upon themselves to bring back this method of farming. Near the south of Mexico City, a town called Xochimilco, there are still families who practice the use of chinampas farming. Much of the yields from these crops go right back into the city, some of it actually going to some of the cities high end restaurants or CSA boxes. As for the rest of Mexico, while the rural workforce is shrinking and moving towards more urbanized areas, small, locally owned farms still dominate the region. Many of the ancient ways of farming mentioned earlier are now being revisited, with sustainability at the forefront of this new increased agricultural production. Wether it be traditional or a 21st century innovation, paired with the vast knowledge of it farmers and horticulturalists, this new standard of sustainable agriculture production will be sure to keep Mexico as a leader in food production. 

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Modern Day Maya Farming

While the Mayans may have a big impact on todays current methods of agriculture and food production, their predecessors are still continuing on with the traditions of the once powerful civilization. As previously mentioned earlier, one system of farming that was conducive to Mayan crop yields and food production was the milpa cycle, or forest gardening. This system along with shifting cultivation was an important part of the whole of mayan agriculture. Today these methods are still in use. However, with the current effects of climate change across the world, the wellbeing of many farmers is threatened. With this, new methods are being discovered, shared and some old ways are being slightly modified. Since the traditional method of milpa relies entirely on rainfall, if rainfall happens too early or too late, an entire crop can be absolutely decimated, resulting in immediate profit loss and potentially affecting surrounding communities who rely on this food. However, with the technology today, many of these worries are now being put to rest. Today milpa is being improved on, with current modern irrigation systems that collect rainfall now being used in Mexico, milpa can continue to be practiced. Thus while not just continuing on a tradition but aiding in the preservation of biodiversity. As part of a project funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development and private donors, the environmental group Nature Conservancy (TNC) is providing technical and financial support to get more farmers to adopt improved milpa. It is through this project that the deforestation stage of milpa could be phased out, protecting even more old-growth forests. There has been a big push over the recent years for encouraging more “ecotourism”. Hotels such as https://www.greenmatters.com/travel/2018/05/16/1OECbL/farm-to-table-riviera-maya are pushing boundaries into teaching the importance of biodiversity maintenance while keeping you entertained on your holidays.

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Chicomecōātl and Centeōtl, The Ancient Aztec Gods

While the responsibility of food production fell on the shoulders of the workers and horticulturalists. The Aztecs believed that crop health, the size of the yields and sometimes even the weather rested solely in the hands of the gods. When it came to agriculture and corn, there were two particular gods the Aztecs looked towards for help. The first being Chicomecōātl, this was the Aztec goddess of agriculture. She played an important role relating to crop yield and weather. Sometimes Chicomecōātl is pictured holding ears of corn and was supposedly blamed during years of poor harvest. The male counterpart this deity was called Centeōtl. This was the god of maize, since corn played such an important part and took up most of food production, Centeōtl was one of the more revered and admired gods in Aztec mythology. At the baginning of the Aztec calendar, which was roughly around february, the Aztec workers would start corn from seed. Since corn was so essential, Centeōtl took up a big part in ancient Aztec mythology stories. 

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An Ancient Agricultural Specialist

During Aztec times, food production work was distinguished between “farmers” and “horticulturalists”. Farmers were general field workers charged with preparing the soil, weeding, breaking up clods, hoeing, leveling, setting boundary markers, planting and irrigating, as well as storing grains. Horticulturalists were more specialized, with knowledge of the planting of trees and transplanting, as well as seeding. These specialists would have needed a detailed understanding of the crop sequences and rotations necessary to ensure continuing high levels of production. Horticulturalists are also known to have played a managerial or supervisory role, for they were expected to read the almanacs to determine the best times for planting and harvesting.

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Aztec Methods Of Farming Irrigation

Irrigation was another method of intensive agriculture used by the Aztecs. This was done by extending the rainy season (watering fields before the summer rains) and by providing additional water to crops during the growing season to supplement the natural rainfall. Although irrigation technology had a long history in central Mexico, the Aztecs built canal systems that were both larger and more sophisticated than earlier endeavours. In many areas, small-scale irrigation systems were the norm. Dams diverted water from springs or small rivers into simple ditch canals that brought the water to nearby fields. In a variation called flood-water irrigation, small dams diverted the frequent rainy-season flash floods onto nearby fields. In some areas the Aztecs built larger and more technologically advanced irrigation systems. For example, a major segment of the Cuauhtitlan River in the northwest Valley of Mexico was diverted and channeled to provide water to a large area of fields. The river channel itself was deepened, widened, and straightened, and the results are impressive even today. A series of canals were built leading off the river to the fields. Springs were tapped to feed canals, some of which were up to 10 km in length. The longest canals were built of stone and the channels were lined with plaster. Aqueducts carried the canals over ravines and other low points. Aqueducts were also used to bring water to the city. The swampy island had a limited supply of drinking water, so an aqueduct was built to carry fresh water over the lake from springs on the mainland. These elaborate hydraulic works were some of the most impressive accomplishments of Aztec technology.

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The Aztecs of Mexico: A Zero Waste Society

Over time this society expanded, and with it, so did the number of chinampas. Due to the abundance and plentiful amount of sun and water, in addition to the temperate climate, these chinampas were incredibly productive. About two thirds of the city consumed food produced through chinampas. However, this increased waste, which the Aztecs dealt with in quite a useful way. Nearing the end of this civilization, roughly around the year 1519, the Spaniards arrived. By then the Aztecs had created an efficient system of managing waste which impressed the Spaniards, it was through this waste management system that crops were fertilized and lakes were kept from being polluted. An important factor in maintaining this high productivity system of food production was the intensive recycling of nutrients. The Aztecs disposed most of their organic waste, such as leftover food scraps, back into their chinampas. This society prohibited the dumping of waste in public areas and even in surrounding forests. One of the key sources of fertilizer for crops was human excrement. While being a incredibly valuable source of fertilizer, the collection and use of excrement aided in the prevention of pollution throughout the lakes, the breathable air and soil used for cultivation. The Aztecs helped maintain biodiversity not just through farming and waste mangement but through the protection of surrounding forests as well. There were laws in place to conserve the natural areas surrounding society. One extreme example is that the cutting down of a live tree would have been punishable by death. It was through these systems that the Aztecs not just thrived and expanded, but helped work in conjunction with nature.

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Chinampas, the Floating Gardens of the Aztecs

Throughout history, many techniques have been created in order to sustain a population in a dense and agrarian society. One of the most successful and arguably one of the most intensive and productive food production system ever created would that of the Chinampas. Over the Aztec period, these floating beds were created and used for farming. Incredibly versatile and extremely efficient. These raised beds could produce up to seven crops annually. Which, compared to the Maya, exponentially increased food production and could be credited towards the massive expanse the Aztec empire had during the later part of their reign. These beds were placed upon freshwater lakes, fronds and mats would have been placed on top of the water and mud, silt and clay, would then have been added on top of these mats. The Aztecs would plant fast growing willow trees in the lakes which would be connected to these mats, in order to keep them in place. Since the soil that was placed upon these mats was extremely nutrient rich, in addition to the constant moisture underneath, this type of agriculture helped food production explode. These floating gardens were incredibly biodiverse, were able to be kept in continuous cultivation and had 100% completely renewable soil. This method of gardening also created micro-environments which helped protect crops from frost. Today the recreational benefits are tremendous, tourism for the area of central Mexico where these chinampas are still used generates even more money than through these traditional horticulture practices alone. 

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The Variety of Crops within the Ancient Aztec Civilization

During this period, Aztec food production played a very important role of sustaining the population and the empire. Agriculture, along with trade and tribute, formed the basis of the Aztec empire. It was three major crops that while bountiful in their agriculture, formed the staple of the Aztec diet. Maize, beans and squash were primarily grown and consumed by the Aztecs. These three types of crops were mutually beneficial and were known (and are still known) as the “Three Sisters”. This symbiotic relationship played an integral role in the crop production of the Aztecs. The corn would deplete nitrogen from soil, which then the beans would replenish. Since the bean vines needed support on which to grow, the corn stalks would provide the support. Squash leaves would help shade the soil, cooling it from the hot sun and help in maintaining moisture while also keeping weeds at bay. This was just one of the ways crops yields increased under the Aztecs. While these three crops were popular with the Aztecs, they also farmed a host of other plants. such as tomatoes, avocados, limes, onions, sweet potatoes, chili peppers(which were an important source of vitamins A and C) and even cacti. One popular species of cacti they grew called the maguey cactus (Agave americana) produced a sap that when fermented was enjoyed as an alcoholic beverage known as pulque or octli. These were sacred to the Aztecs and actually had their own own deities. This is just a small example of how much variety and availability the Aztecs had in terms of plantable food.

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Introduction to Aztec Food Production and Agricultural Practices

The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican society that were mostly located in central Mexico from 1300 to 1521. As of all Mesoamerican Peoples, Aztec society was primarily organized around maize(corn). The geographical area in which the Aztecs lived was a consistently humid area. The land also had many lakes and swamps. This provided the Aztecs with a fertile land that allowed intensive agriculture. The variety of crops grown and methods of farming were similar to that of the Mayas, however, one key importance between the two was the tremendous increase in crop yields. Many of the methods used by Aztecs had been previously used by the Maya. Many of these methods were not just repeated by the Aztecs but also improved on. Similar to the Maya, the Aztecs also incorporated terraced farming into their agriculture production, however, on a much wider scale during this time period. The Aztecs were also encouraged by their government to own and maintain private gardens in their households. While there were many similarities between the two, there were also many differences. One being the introduction of aqueducts, over time expansion happened, it was during this time that aqueducts were integrated. Now providing clean water and easier access to irrigate household gardens. Another key difference was the Aztecs waste management system. Its been said that once the spaniards arrived upon Aztec land, they were shocked at how clean the city was. It was through this waste management system that fertilization of crops was maintained. Many of the agricultural practices once used by the Aztecs are still practiced by surrounding cultures in these areas today.

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Milpa, the Ancient Mayan Horticulture Practice of Shifting Cultivation

The Mayan practice of Milpa, was one of the earliest known forms of shifting cultivation agriculture. Through this process the Mayans created arable land in otherwise useless, nutritionally deficient land. During this time, milpa primarily was aimed towards maize(corn) heavy crops. As this was one of the most popular crops at the time.  This system of land management entailed a cycle of annual crops, followed by short-lived perennial shrubs and trees. This in time re-established mature forests on once cultivated land, which had been left to fallow for roughly eight to ten years. Once enough time had passed, a once barren, nutritionally depleted soil would have then been replaced by a thriving, now ecologically restored area. The next step in this process would have then been through the use of what is called the “slash-and-burn” technique. These forests would have been cut down and burned. The resulting ash provided through this burning tremendously helped in restoring nutrition to the soil. It was then the Maya would re-cultivate this land for crops. This whole process would be repeated over time and farmers would have cycled through different parcels of land. This type of land use has been handed down through generations and is still used today, interestingly it has been noted at being incredibly effective at not using pesticides or fertilizers. Since the first introduction of the milpa cycle, its integration into local ecological succession has actually transformed the surrounding area. This has lead to a point where 95% of dominant tree species in the Maya lowlands now provide a utility for humans. 

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The Mayans Various Methods of Food-Producing Systems Cont.

Among many farming practices used by the Maya, one popular method was raised beds. Since many of the southern Mayan regions were swampy lowlands, it would have been quite difficult to cultivate and grow food. One way these farmers worked around this setback was through the use of raised beds. These raised beds were placed within swampy lands and created at an artificial height. The swampy water was then diverted into small canals that surrounded these beds. This form of irrigation nearly eliminated the need for hand-watering. The minerals and nutrients found in the swamp-water and mud at the bottom of these canals aided in providing natural fertilization for the crops above. In addition to the minerals found in the mud and water, even more natural fertilization was created through abundant aquatic life. Throughout these canals fish, turtles and other forms of life lived. The excrement of these animals contributed towards the naturally occurring fertilization process included in this form of farming. This type of farming system was very hard to maintain, and extremely labour-intensive, however, it was quite efficient in terms of producing food. this method could have produced up to either two or three crops per year. During this time, this scale of farming would be considered mass-farming, however, Mayan households actually had personal gardens. These gardens most likely produced non-maize crops, such as other ingredients needed and used in household kitchens. This could have included chilies, vanilla, avocado and papayas. 

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The Mayans Various Methods of Food-Producing Systems

In order to deal with rainforest, swampy areas and mountainous hillsides, the Maya had to engineer a variety of farming methods. As previously stated, some of these methods are still being used today. This shows just how ingenious and capable this civilization was when it came to producing food in difficult terrain, whether that be areas with no sources of water, or steep mountain face. One of the methods used by Mayans is called terrace farming. In mountainous areas, the Maya made terraces on the steep hillsides. Small fields are cut into a hillside and held with a retaining wall. These create a series of steps that reduce water runoff and erosion and could be planted with maize or other crops. These terraces make the most productive use of mountainous or hilly land. In addition to helping prevent runoff, these terraces were also separated by deep irrigation trenches, this in turn help ease some of the maintenance required by providing a consistently moisture-laden underground. While terraces themselves are not necessarily fertile, if rejuvenated by alluvial sediment, they tend to be more productive than surrounding unterraced farmed hillsides. While shifting cultivation (crop rotation) played an important part throughout food production, it would have been difficult to maintain that through terraced farming. To remediate this problem, these terraces involved considerable investments of time and effort and were much more likely to be carefully cultivated, fertilized, weeded and irrigated compared to those unterraced plots. 

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The Variety of Crops within the Ancient Mayan Civilization 

Ancient Maya cuisine and food was varied and extensive. Food was obtained or produced through a host of strategies, such as hunting, foraging, and large-scale agricultural production. Back then plant domestication focused on several core foods, the most important of which was maize(corn). While important, many other crops were produced, such as sunflowers for their seeds, cotton for textiles and clothing, chilies, tomatoes and even cacao. Cacao was especially prized by the elite, who consumed chocolate beverages. Among the fruits grown by the Mayans were papaya, guava and avocado. Recently, archeologists also discovered that the Maya grew manioc or cassava, which we call Yuca. Manioc root provides a significant amount of carbohydrate in the diet. This discovery could solve a longstanding mystery of how the Maya could produce enough nutritious food to feed everyone, considering the land they inhabited and worked with no metal tools or draft animals. Maize being arguably the most popular and common type of crop grown, actually helped prevent a major deficiency, still seen in even some of todays modern societies. Maize was used and eaten in a variety of ways, but was always nixtamalized. Nixtamalization (a term that derives from the Nahuatl word for the process) is a procedure in which maize is soaked and cooked in an alkaline solution. This releases niacin, a necessary B vitamin (vitamin B3) that prevents and reduces incidents of protein deficiency. An alternative view is that manioc cassava was the easily grown staple crop of the Maya and that maize was revered because it was prestigious and harder to grow. This proposal was based on the inability of maize to meet the nutritional needs of densely populated Maya areas. Manioc can meet those needs. 

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Introduction to Mayan food production and agricultural practices.

The history of Mayan food production and contributions towards agriculture are an important piece of human history. The Maya Empire, centered in the tropical lowlands of what is now Guatemala, reached the peak of its power and influence around the sixth century A.D. One thing this civilization excelled at was agriculture. Their sophistication in this field can be compared to other ancient empires such as the Egyptians. These methods were taught and passed down through generations, even being carried on by other future civilizations. Many of the practices once used by this ancient civilization are still applied to current modern day agricultural methods. Some of the methods used by the Mayans were raised fields, terracing, intensive gardening, forest gardens, and managed fallows were also crucial to supporting the large populations of this civilization. However, while methods of farming, food production and the variety of crops is quite the wonder, especially considering how long ago this civilization was alive, one under-acknowledged key part to this was their waste management techniques, Which is still being heavily researched to this day. In turn, Mayans were an agrarian society which relied heavily on farming activities for their annual food supply. The land in the Mayan regions wasn’t exactly conducive to farming but Mayans made it cultivable using various methods. Most Mayan households had a personal garden to grow vegetables while major crops, such as maize, was grown just outside a city.